THE  -^ 

' '     EVOLUTION       ^ 

OF  MODERN 
ORCHESTRATION 

^  COERNE 


UMvCfisiTv  Of    m 
SAN  DIEGO     I 


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The    Evolution 


OF 


Modern    Orchestration 


BY 

LOUIS    ADOLPHE   'COERNE,    Ph.D. 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1908 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYKIGHT,  1908, 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.      Published  September   1908 


Stanbopc  iprces 

H.  GILSOM     COMPANV 
BOSTON.     U.S.A. 


CONTENTS 

PART   I.  — PRELIMINARIES. 


Page 


Preface     

Introductory  Note 


Chapter    I.   THE  CRADLE  OF  INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC.     (Historical  Review.)  .    .  i 

II.   THE  DAWN  OF  INDEPENDENT  INSTRUMENTATION 5 

"       III.   EVOLUTION  OF  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS 8 

IV.   BEGINNINGS  OF  ORCHESTRATION 16 

Summary  of  Part  I 26 

PART   II.— THE   CLASSIC    ERA. 

Chapter     V.   BACH,  HANDEL,  AND  THEIR  CONTEMPORARIES 28 

VI.   GLUCK  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES 38 

"       VII.   HAYDN,  MOZART,  AND  BEETHOVEN 47 

"      VIII.    THE  CONTEMPORARIES  OF  BEETHOVEN 58 

Summary  of  Part  II 68 

PART  III.— ROMANTICISM. 

Chapter  IX.   THE  ROMANTIC  SCHOOL 70 

X.   THE  CLASSICAL  ROMANTICISTS 81 

XI.   THE  NEW  MOVEMENT 89 

"       XII.   FRANCE  AND  ITALY 125 

"     XIII.   HUNGARY  AND  BOHEMIA 145 

SCANDINAVIA  AND  RUSSIA 148 

"       ENGLAND  AND  AMERICA 157 

Summary  of  Part  III 175 

Conclusion 183 

Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations 189 

Index      277 


PREFACE 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  write  a  treatise  on  instrumentation  or  to 
prepare  a  pedagogical  analysis  of  orchestration  only,  but  rather  to  trace  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  orchestra  and  of  orchestration  in  connection  with  the  history  of  music 
proper.  Special  emphasis  will  be  laid  upon  what  may  be  termed  the  impel- 
ling FORCES  to  which  the  development  of  orchestration  is  due.  This  neces- 
sitates a  considerable  repetition  of  familiar  facts  that  do  not  lend  themselves  to 
further  original  treatment.  The  restatement  of  such  facts,  however,  would  seem 
to  form  an  indispensable  background  for  the  main  theme,  which  is  thereby 
exposed  with  all  its  attending  phases  of  logical  evolution. 

In  addition  to  extended  studies  of  orchestral  scores  themselves,  the  standard 
works  of  Berlioz,  Gevaert,  Riemann,  Parry,  and  others  have,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  been  referred  to.  The  subject  under  discussion  has  already  been 
admirably  handled  by  Lavoix  in  his  voluminous  work  entitled  "Histoire  de 
LTnstrumentation,"  but  it  was  unquestionably  done  through  French  glasses, 
and  the  scores  of  not  one  German  romanticist  are  submitted  to  careful  analysis 
beyond  those  of  Weber  and  Wagner.  "Parsifal"  had  not  been  produced  at  the 
time  when  Lavoix's  book  went  to  press,  nor  had  such  representative  composers 
as  Brahms,  Saint-Saens,  Tschaikowsky,  Dvorak  then  won  their  fuU  meed  of  recog- 
nition. It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  orchestration  especially  of  the  nineteenth 
century  offers  a  fertile  field  for  further  profitable  research.  Again,  the  present 
writer  is  not  aware  of  the  existence  of  any  comprehensive  work  in  the  English 
language  upon  the  history  of  the  orchestra  and  of  orchestration. 

Throughout  these  pages  the  achievements  of  the  more  prominent  composers  are 
set  forth  in  such  manner  as  to  indicate  not  only  the  distinctive  features  of  their 
orchestration  but  of  their  general  creative  ability  as  well.  In  each  case,  the  gen- 
eral style  of  composition  and  its  significance  as  a  contribution  to  musical  literature 
are  first  enlarged  upon.  This  is  followed  by  an  examination  of  the  differentiated 
treatment  of  the  strings,  the  wood,  the  brass,  presented  in  logical  sequence.  A 
final  analysis  is  then  made  of  the  individual  method  of  orchestration  as  a  whole, 
together  with  its  relative  value  in  the  evolution  of  orchestration. 

In  the  Appendix  to  this  book  will  be  found  a  few  musical  illustrations  selected 
from  representative  orchestral  scores. 

LOUIS   ADOLPHE  COERNE. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts,   U.  S.  A. 
April  30,   1905. 

T 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

It  was  inevitable  that  in  an  age  marked  like  the  present  by  specialization  in  all 
the  arts  and  in  all  branches  of  learning  as  well,  the  need  would  one  day  be  felt  of 
a  history  of  orchestration.  In  attempting  to  supply  it  with  this  book  Dr.  Coeme 
has  filled  a  want  in  English  musical  literature.  Of  treatises  devoted  to  the  art  of 
writing  for  the  orchestra  there  is  no  lack.  Berlioz,  the  greatest  master  of  the  art 
before  Wagner,  wrote  such  a  treatise,  which  while  it  was  still  looked  upon  as  in 
many  respects  a  model,  was  revised  and  brought  down  to  date  by  Richard  Strauss; 
but  invaluable  as  this  treatise  is  and  as  are  the  more  voluminous  treatises  of  the  Bel- 
gian Gevaert,  the  German  Hofmann  and  the  Englishman  Prout,  they  are  after  all 
study-books  for  the  creative  musician,  and  only  by  laborious  comparison  of  their 
illustrative  examples,  or  the  scores  of  composers,  can  the  historical  inquirer  learn 
aught  of  the  evolution  of  the  art  to  which  they  are  devoted.  Even  then  his  view  is 
restricted,  practically,  to  the  music  composed  since  the  closing  decades  of  the 
eighteenth  centur)'.  The  explanation  of  this  fact  is  that  while  the  art  of  music 
is  always  spoken  of  as  young  in  the  handbooks,  that  of  orchestration  is  much 
younger.  The  student  of  orchestration,  say  the  teachers,  can  derive  little  benefit 
from  a  study  of  scores  older  than  those  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  because  some  of 
the  instruments  of  their  predecessors  are  obsolete  and  so  is  their  manner  of  writing 
for  the  instruments  still  in  use.  This,  however,  brings  small  comfort  to  the 
historical  investigator  who  is  quite  as  desirous  to  know  what  the  orchestra  was  like 
prior  to  Haydn  and  ^Mozart,  and  the  Mannheim  symphonists,  as  he  is  to  learn  the 
steps  by  which  it  reached  its  present  mar\'ellous  efficiency.  It  is  the  help  which 
it  extends  in  this  direction  which  makes  the  "  Histoire  de  ITnstrumentation "  of 
M.  Lavoix,  to  which  our  author  acknowledges  indebtedness,  valuable;  but  that 
work  is  accessible  only  to  students  who  have  knowledge  of  the  French  language. 

Moreover,  there  are  interesting  signs  of  a  return  to  some  of  the  orchestral 
instruments  which  had  fallen  into  disuse  when  the  modem  art  of  orchestration 
came  into  existence.  It  is  not  only  a  pious  regard  and  reverence  for  Bach  and 
Handel,  especially  the  former,  which  is  prompting  conductors  when  performing 
their  works  to  restore  instruments  to  the  orchestra  which  were  considered  hopelessly 
obsolete  only  a  few  decades  ago,  but  also  a  growing  appreciation  of  the  fact  that 
modem  substitutes  for  them  have  largely  failed  of  their  mission.  Two  facts  of 
large  importance  confront  the  careful  observer  of  musical  phenomena  today:  the 


viii  INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

art  of  composition  has  reached  that  degree  of  technical  perfection,  or  high  virtuoso- 
ship  which  in  the  history  of  all  the  arts  introduces  a  decay  of  true  creativeness. 
We  have,  therefore,  on  the  one  hand  excessive  admiration  for  technique  per  se, 
and  on  the  other  a  growing  reaction  towards  old  ideals.  Of  this  latter  fact  I  thought 
I  saw  significant  evidences  in  1900  when  as  a  member  of  the  International  Jury 
at  the  Paris  Exposition  new  specimens  of  a  considerable  number  of  archaic 
musical  instruments  came  into  my  hands  for  examination,  among  them  a  bass 
flute  for  the  return  of  which  Mr.  Frederick  Corder  expresses  an  ardent  longing  in 
his  admirable  essay  on  Instrumentation  in  the  new  edition  of  Grove's  "  Dictionary 
of  Music  and  Musicians."  Since  then,  too,  we  have  heard  the  harpsichord  in  our 
concert-rooms,  seen  the  oboe  d'amore  adopted  by  Richard  Strauss,  the  alto  flute  by 
Felix  Weingartner,  and  observed  the  establishment  in  America  as  well  as  Europe  of 
orchestral  and  chamber  concerts  in  which  music  of  the  seventeenth  and  earlier 
centuries  is  played  upon  instruments  for  which  it  was  written.  We  shall  in  all 
likelihood  some  day  have  to  extend  our  treatises  on  orchestration  to  include  some 
of  the  instruments  now  considered  obsolete,  and  be  grateful  for  all  references  to 
them  in  historical  works  like  the  present  one. 

Dr.  Coeme,  the  author  of  this  book,  is  an  American  composer  born  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  who  has  achieved  the  distinction  of  having  an  opera  of  his  writing  performed 
in  a  European  opera-house.  His  "  Zenobia"  was  brought  forward  in  Bremen  on 
December  i,  1905.  It  was  the  first  instance  of  the  performance  in  Europe  of  a 
grand  opera  composed  by  a  native  of  the  United  States.  The  score  of  this  opera 
and  the  subject-matter  of  this  book  were  accepted  as  a  thesis  by  Harvard  University 
which  conferred  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  on  the  author  in  June,  1905.  It  was  the  first 
time  that  the  university  bestowed  the  degree  for  special  work  in  music. 

H.  E.  KREHBIEL. 
New  York,  April,  190& 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF 

MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 


PART    I.  — PRELIMINARIES. 

CHAPTER    I. 

THE  CRADLE  OF  INSTRUMENTAL   MUSIC.     (Historical  Review.) 

L 

Primitive  men  were  no  doubt  impelled  to  give  utterance  to  their  feelings  by 
a  desire  for  awakening  sympathetic  response  in  their  fellow  beings.  Vocal  mani- 
festation of  feeling  developed  into  incipient  melody,  hence  rudimentary  scales. 
Gestures  of  dancing  suggested  rhythm.  A  fusion  of  both  melody  and  rhythm 
led  to  contrast,  and  contrast  implies  symmetry  of  design.  To  emphasize  rhythm 
combined  with  euphony,  musical  instruments  were  needed.  Relics  of  certain 
species  of  these  instruments  are  analogous  to  subsequent  species  of  civilized 
nations. 

Another  source  whence  music  can  be  traced  is  in  the  religious  rites  of  the 
pagans. 

Ancient  history  reveals  diversified  and  wide-spread  musical  activity.  The 
oldest  representations  of  musicians  are  to  be  found  on  Egyptian  monuments. 
Through  contact  with  Oriental  nations,  Egypt  possibly  founded  her  system  of 
intellectual  music  on  extraneous  principles.  On  the  other  hand,  she  probably 
influenced  the  music  of  the  Hebrews,  certainly  that  of  the  Greeks.  Exemplifi- 
cation of  Oriental  instrumentalists  is  seen  on  Assyrian  bas  reliefs.  One  of  these, 
in  the  possession  of  the  British  Museum,  represents  performers  on  a  drum,  a 
double-pipe,  a  primitive  species  of  the  dulcimer,  and  seven  harps.  The  prepon- 
derance of  stringed  instruments  suggests  sensitive  appreciation  for  modulated 
quality  of  tone.  Constant  reference  to  Hebrew  music  is,  of  course,  to  be  found 
in  the  Scriptures.  The  classification  of  singers  for  temple  worship  during  the 
reign  of  Solomon  and  of  David,  and  the  especial  importance  attached  to  song 
with  instrumental  accompaniment  will  at  once  recur  to  the  mind. 

Greece  during  her  ascendency  elevated  music  to  a  plane  of  importance  only 
secondary  to  that  of  her  sister  art,  poetry,  whose  handmaiden  she  became. 
Indeed,  though  both  vocal  and  purely  instrumental  music  were  practised  inde- 


2  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

pendently,  prominence  was  bestowed  upon  the  welding  together  of  poetry  and 
music  as  embodied  in  the  Athenian  tragedies.  The  Greeks  possessed  but  a 
theoretical  knowledge  of  harmony.  Instrumental  accompaniment  probably 
duplicated  the  vocal  melody  in  unison  or  octave,  and  may  have  added  some 
simple  harmonic  intervals  such  as  the  fourth  or  fifth. 

With  the  disorganization  of  Greece,  music  was  transplanted  to  Rome,  and, 
being  no  longer  looked  upon  as  an  art,  sank  into  degeneracy.  Nevertheless,  the 
fundamental  principles  governing  the  science  of  music  as  promulgated  by  the 
Greek  theoreticians  were  rescued  from  oblivion  by  early  Roman  writers.  And 
these  principles,  leavened  by  fragments  of  melancholy  and  contemplative  strains 
of  Hebraic  melody,  devolved  from  the  early  Christian  neophytes,  were  destined 
to  constitute  the  rock  upon  which  all  subsequent  Western  ecclesiastical  music, 
even  to  the  present  day,  has  been  built. 

Review  thus  far  tends  to  show  that  the  objective  of  prehistoric  and  ante- 
Christian  musical  thought  was  primarily  the  emotional  expression  of  human 
feeling.  The  growth  of  musical  art  was,  moreover,  amazingly  dilatory  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  other  fine  arts. 

n. 

The  next  step  to  record  is  that  of  incipient  harmonic  effects,  musical  notation, 
the  principles  of  design.  And  for  centuries  the  art  was  now  developed  exclu- 
sively under  the  beneficent  patronage  of  the  Roman  Church  —  persistently  along 
vocal  lines.  For  the  Church  adolescent  discountenanced  anything  suggestive  of 
pagan  worship,  or  traceable  to  depraved  Roman  orgies.  Consequently  instru- 
mental evolution  lay  quiescent.  This  was  the  age  of  dreary  speculation,  of  highly 
ingenious  and  elaborately  scientific  artifice.  Yet  the  results  were  but  puerile. 
For  even  such  rudiments  of  modem  musical  grammar  as  are  readily  mastered  in 
our  day  by  a  mere  child,  were  far  beyond  the  perspective  of  the  early  scholastic 
monks,  who  arrived  at  a  few  tangible  results  only  by  the  most  circuitous  methods. 
Nevertheless  progress,  though  sluggish,  is  to  be  traced  in  logical  sequence. 

Beginning  with  the  establishment  of  singing-schools  by  Pope  Sylvester,  and 
the  Antiphons  and  Hymns  of  Ambrosius  in  the  fourth  century,  it  is  but  necessary 
to  recall  the  documents  of  Boetius  and  of  Isadore  in  the  sixth  century,  the  reforms 
of  the  Gregories  in  the  seventh  and  eighth,  the  sequentiae  of  Notker  in  the  ninth. 
More  specific  were  the  crude  attempts  at  harmony  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies as  typified  by  Hucbald's  organum;  Guido  d'Arezzo's  notation  in  the 
eleventh;  finally  the  adoption  of  mensural  writing  asattributed  to  Franco 
de  Cologne,  thirteenth,  and  Johannes  de  Muris,  fourteenth  century. 

Thus  under  the  guardianship  of  the  Church,  and  upon  a  basis  of  what  has 


THE    CRADLE    OF    INSTRUMENTAL    MUSIC 


ever  been  known  as  the  Gregorian  Chant,  a  decade  of  centuries  had  been  con- 
sumed in  learning  to  perceive  and  to  apply  the  fundamentals  of  melody  and  of 
harmony,  to  discover  an  adequate  interpreter,  notation,  and  an  accurate  though 
flexible  regulator,  rhythm. 

III. 

Meanwhile  the  Folk-song,  already  mentioned  in  its  primogenial  character, 
reasserted  itself  as  the  annotator  of  lyric  poetry,  through  the  activity  of  the  trouba- 
dours from  the  eleventh  to  the  fourteenth  centuries.  Of  these,  the  name  of  Adam 
de  la  Hale  is,  of  course,  best  known.  Just  as  combined  Oriental  and  Greek  tradi- 
tions formed  the  substructure  of  the  early  ecclesiastical  modes,  so  a  fusion  of  the 
Gregorian  Chant  and  the  Folk-song  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  second, 
and  in  this  case  more  distinctly  accretive  nucleus.  This  was  of  incalculable  serv- 
ice, primarily  to  subsequent  secular  music  as  a  whole,  eventually  to  instrumenta- 
tion as  a  side  issue.  For  the  soul  of  the  Folk-song  finds  expression  in  the  melodic. 
And  this  natural  mode  of  expressing  natural  emotion,  amplified  not  alone  by  the 
peoples  of  the  Romance  nations  and  of  the  Teutonic  races,  but  also  quite  especially 
by  such  as  were  of  Celtic  origin,  infused  life,  color,  and  variety  into  the  stiff  and 
formal  church  style  then  in  vogue.  Again,  la  gaie  science  required  the  art  of 
accompaniment;  consequently  this  long-neglected  acquirement  began  to  awake 
from  its  lethargy.  So  we  find  the  troubadours  accompanying  their  songs  with  a 
variety  of  instruments  such  as  the  crwth,  the  rebec,  the  lute,  the  harp,  the  viol. 

The  Folk-song  has  in  the  end  proved  to  be  the  most  enduring  mode  of  express- 
ing feeling,  representing,  as  it  does,  the  natural  growth  of  a  nation.  Influenced 
by  local  temperament,  climate,  history,  on  every  hand  its  distinctly  indigenous 
characteristics  have  stood  out  in  peaceful  contrast  to  the  eclectic  polyphony  of 
coexisting  scientific  attempts.  And,  as  we  know,  although  the  Folk-song  was 
eclipsed  for  a  time  by  other  forms,  it  was  destined  to  play  an  important  role. 
For  its  loftiest  mission  was  realized  not  only  in  connection  with  the  German  Sing- 
spiel  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  also  through  its  application  by  the  great  classi- 
cists of  the  same  period  as  contrasting  theme  for  the  Sonata-piece. 

IV. 

Continuing  our  chronological  review,  we  trace  the  propagandism  of  Italian 
theoretical  principles  through  France  into  the  Netherlands.  Here,  during  the 
fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuries,  polyphonic  vocal  music  was  reared  on  the 
exalted  pedestals  of  noble  Gothic  architecture.  From  Dufay  —  the  connecting 
link  between  the  French  and  Flemish  Schools  —  through  Ockeghem,  Josquin  des 
Pres,  WiUaert,  to  Lasso,  the  supremacy  of  musical  composition  was  conceded  to 


4  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

the  Low  Countries,  although  simultaneous  musical  activity  in  Italy  was  by  no 
means  retrogressional.  As  for  the  labors  of  such  men  as  Dunstable  in  England 
and  Isaak  in  Germany,  the  former  was  not  in  the  direct  line  either  of  technical  or 
of  aesthetic  evolution,  whereas  the  latter  was  trained  in  Italy  and  wrote  in  the 
Flemish  style. 

The  concentrated  results  of  this  era  consisted  of  the  consecutive  development 
of  the  technicalities  of  counterpoint,  growing  regard  for  euphony  and  expressive 
verbal  interpretation,  finally,  the  ascendency  of  objective  emotionaHsm.  Lasso, 
embodying  in  his  works  the  highest  ideals  of  polyphonic  writing,  transplanted 
them  into  Germany.  Simultaneously,  Palestrina,  the  greatest  purist  of  Italian 
vocal  writing,  was  at  the  zenith  of  his  glory.  France  had  produced  Goudimel 
and  Claude  le  Jeune.  The  music  of  England  was  prominently  connected  with 
such  names  as  Merbecke,  Tallys,  Byrd,  Morley.  The  Reformation  was  exer- 
cising a  powerful  influence  upon  the  art  of  music  in  the  development  of  the  Chorale. 

And  thus  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  this  wonderful  array  of 
coexisting  phases  of  choral  art  stood  prepared  for  something  greater.  Pure 
choral  music  had  been  perfected.  The  era  of  instrumental  music  was  at  hand. 
For  in  spite  of  the  rare  aesthetic  beauty,  the  intricate  yet  lucid  voice-leading,  the 
admirable  handling  of  human  voices  en  masse  that  signalize  the  works  of  Pales- 
trina and  Lasso,  two  essential  elements,  indispensable  for  further  creative  expan- 
sion, were  lacking  —  rhythm  and  form.  To  attain  these,  new  means  and  methods 
were  necessary.  Two  possibilities  presented  themselves:  solo  singing,  and  instru- 
mental music.  Although  both  of  these  combined  had  been  subjected  to  quasi- 
scientific  experiment  since  time  immemorial,  the  style  of  writing  for  them  pos- 
sessed as  yet  but  little  individuality.  There  was  indeed  much  to  be  done  before 
a  permanent  basis  for  modem  tonality  and  modem  instrumentation  could  be 
secured.  The  old  modal  system  was  still  at  the  root  of  both  sacred  and  secular 
music.  Harmony  was  but  the  adventitious  corollary  of  counterpoint.  Only 
simple  diatonic  intervals  were  in  use.  Incipient  harmony  could  not  inspire  men 
to  think  rhythmically.  Pure  church  music  was  monotonous  and  vague.  True, 
secular  music  in  erudite  form  was  influenced  by  the  Folk-song,  and  showed  some 
progress  in  rhythmic  and  simple  harmonic  effects.  These  in  turn  reacted  favor- 
ably upon  the  sacred  forms.  Nevertheless,  any  attempt  at  developing  motives  as 
the  synthetic  germs  of  a  composition  was  not  to  be  thought  of  until  the  following 
century  in  connection  with  instrumental  forms. 

The  pith  of  the  conditions  prevalent  at  the  close  of  the  era  has  been  happily 
stated  by  Parry  when  he  says:  "It  is  as  though  the  art  was  still  in  too  nebulous 
a  state  for  the  essential  elements  to  have  cr^'stallized  into  separate  and  definite 
entities." 

(Svunmaiy  on  page  26.) 


CHAPTER   II. 
THE  DAWN  OF  INDEPENDENT   INSTRUMENTATION. 

I. 

The  awakening  interest  for  instrumental  music  received  its  incentive  from 
two  distinctive  sources  —  the  organ,  and  accompaniment  to  solo  singing.  As  a 
natural  corollary  to  centuries  of  ecclesiastical  supremacy  in  musical  composition, 
the  organ  had  taken  first  rank  among  instruments  and  was,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, the  most  advanced,  both  as  to  mechanical  construction  and  correlative  tech- 
nique of  its  performers.  Hence  the  organ  was  destined  to  become  a  spontaneous 
yet  covert  connecting  link  between  pure  choral  and  pure  instrumental  music. 

The  initiative  in  this  progression  is  due  to  the  direct  heirs  of  the  Flemish 
School  —  the  Venetian  organists.  Both  Andreas  Gabrieli  (1510),  pupil  of 
Willaert,  and  Merulo  (1533)  had  begun  to  add  ornamental  embellishments  to 
their  accompaniments,  and  although  coherence  was  lacking,  the  step  once  taken 
led  to  extended  experiments.  Thus  the  treatment  of  further  instruments  employed 
in  religious  worship  instinctively  received  more  careful  attention.  Little  by  little 
composers  awoke  to  the  realization  that  the  senile  imitation  of  a  capdla  polyphonic 
choral  writing  hitherto  employed,  was  unsuited  to  the  characteristics  of  differen- 
tiated individual  instruments  or  combinations  of  instruments.  True,  the  artistic 
value  of  these  early  attempts  was  but  small,  and  would  almost  appear  as  an  incom- 
patibility, taking  into  consideration  the  fact  that  their  authors  were  erudite  in  the 
subtleties  of  canonical  device.  Nevertheless,  several  tangible  results  are  to  be 
noted.  As  has  been  said,  instrumental  writing  acquired  a  certain  amount  of 
individuality.  Through  search  for  balance  of  tone  there  was  inaugurated  a  select- 
ive process  as  to  the  permanent  value  of  each  specific  genre  of  an  instrument. 
Instrumental  adaptation  of  choral  imitation  led  to  contrast.  Expansibility  of 
musical  thought  was  quickened.  Thus  Flemish  influence  was  kept  alive  in  that 
the  incipient  forms  of  their  Venetian  disciples,  inherited  by  the  subsequent 
violinist-composers,  matured  into  the  cyclic  sonata. 

Conspicuous  are  the  organ  works  of  Frescobaldi  (i 583-1644),  the  great 
predecessor  of  Bach.  His  labors  also  directly  influenced  subsequent  clavier  music 
as  developed  by  Kuhnau  in  the  following  century.  Credit  is  due  to  Giovanni 
Gabrieli  (1587)  for  systematic  attempts  at  orchestration  and  a  distinctive  style 
of  writing  for  the  violin.    This  latter,  however,  had  to  wait  for  the  development 

S 


6  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

of  technique,  which,  as  we  shall  see,  was  concurrent  with  the  progress  of  solo 
singing.  And  thus  the  year  i6co,  epx)ch-making  in  the  rehabilitation  of  the  drama, 
can  be  likewise  referred  to  as  a  general  starting  point  for  independent  instrumen- 
tation. 

II. 

The  second  and  more  powerful  incentive  that  instrumentation  received  was 
from  monody,  in  connection  with  which  its  function  as  accompaniment  in  sim- 
plified form  was  demonstrated.  The  Jons  et  origo  of  declamatory  recitative  are, 
of  course,  to  be  traced  to  the  attempted  reforms  of  the  Florentine  camerata. 
Monody  was  the  cradle  of  opera  and  oratorio,  and  became  in  turn  the  foster  child 
of  her  progeny.     Now  these  histrionic  roots  were  diversified  and  far  reaching. 

In  the  first  place,  during  the  two  centuries  preceding  the  era  under  discussion, 
the  miracle  plays  and  representations  of  similar  purport  had  had  recourse  to 
musical  support,  though  of  a  nature  disjointed  and  irrelevant. 

Secondly,  the  efforts  of  the  troubadours,  minstrels,  and  minnesingers  embodied 
solo-singing  to  instrumental  accompaniment,  and  contained  elements  of  the 
dramatic. 

Lastly,  a  newly  awakened  veneration  for  everything  pertaining  to  classic 
Greece  revealed  the  nobility  of  her  drama.  This  was  the  causa  vera  to  be 
espoused!  And  the  evolution  of  this  renaissance,  which  reached  a  climax  in 
1600,  must  be  traced  to  the  history  of  the  Medici. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  three  generations  of  that 
family  had  brought  Florence  to  the  height  of  her  glory,  art  had  received  a  new 
impulse  under  the  fostering  care  of  Lorenzo.  Moreover,  science  had  acquired 
the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  scholars  fleeing  from  Turkish  oppression.  And  the 
brief  interim  of  asceticism  under  the  sway  of  the  Dominican  monk,  Savanarola, 
was  followed  by  the  restoration  to  power  of  the  Medici.  A  non-clerical  influence 
in  all  matters  pertaining  to  art  made  itself  felt,  and  the  founding  of  the  Platonic 
Academy  by  Cosimo  the  Great  added  fuel  to  the  already  existing  predilection  for 
the  drama  as  exploited  by  the  Ancients. 

Hence  the  aim  of  the  amateur  poet  and  composer,  Bardi,  and  his  coterie  was  to 
produce  a  drama  which  should  faithfully  conform  to  the  purity  and  idealism  of 
classic  models.  And  they  sought  diligently  for  a  clue  to  original  renditions  of 
Attic  tragedy,  the  Dorian  choral  lyrics,  the  song-lyrics  of  Anacreon,  Sappho. 
But  their  conception  thereof  was  based  on  a  fallacy,  so  that  were  one  to  judge  the 
fruits  of  their  labors  solely  for  their  intrinsic  value,  the  verdict  would  be 
disappointing. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  step  they  took  was  a  gigantic  one  forward  in  its  revolu- 
tionary  after-results.     For  the  quintessence  of  recitative   and   lyrical   solo   was 


THE    DAWN    OF    INDEPENDENT    INSTRUMENTATION  7 

contained  in  Galilei's  and  Caccini's  declamatory  recitatives  with  accompaniment 
of  lute  or  viol;  in  Peri's  and  Caccini's  "Dafne"  and  "Euridice"  —  the  first  gen- 
uine music  dramas  in  the  monodic  style;  in  Cavalieri^s  allegory  or  incipient  oratorio 
"L'Anima  e  Corpo. "  All  these  attempts  were  infinitely  more  expressive  and 
effective  than  the  sombre  selections  with  which  A.  Gabrieli  and  Merulo  had  been 
wont  to  enliven  festive  secular  occasions.  Bardi  and  Corsi,  in  the  face  of  conser- 
vatism and  skepticism,  had  sought  to  reinstate  the  principles  founded  upon  the 
Greek  Dithyramb.  Inspired  by  the  enthusiasm  of  these  two  amateurs,  the  pro- 
fessionals, Peri  and  Cavalieri,  succeeded  simultaneously  in  discovering  two  rational 
operatic  designs,  capable  of  sequent  dramatic  treatment. 

Finally,  the  very  nature  of  the  monodic  principle  was  inseparable  from  instru- 
mental accompaniment,  and  the  primary  causes  that  led  to  monody,  namely, 
expression  and  dramatic  effect,  would  in  themselves  insist  upon  a  keener  apprecia- 
tion for  instrumental  combination  as  to  selection,  distribution  of  parts,  dynamics, 
color-scheme.  This  is  borne  out  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  later  works  of  both 
Peri  and  Cavalieri,  whose  instrumentation,  though  crude,  paved  the  way  for  their 
greater  contemporary  and  eventual  successor,  Monteverde.  Even  though  the 
bulk  of  the  figured  bass  accompaniment  was  assigned  to  the  harpsichord, 
"Euridice"  called  into  requisition  one  viol,  three  flutes,  and  a  triplet  of  instruments 
of  the  lute  variety.  Cavalieri  made  use  of  practically  the  same  combination,  and 
even  recommended  that  a  violin  should  duplicate  the  vocal  melody  throughout. 

In  contradistinction  to  these  essays  at  dramatic  scoring  should  be  mentioned 
the  instrumentation  of  Striggio  (1535),  whose  intermezzi  or  comedies  interspersed 
with  music  were  written  in  the  madrigal  style.  Nor  should  the  concertante  sacred 
song  of  Viadana  (1564)  or  the  instrumental  effects  of  Gibbons  (1583)  be  over- 
looked. But  Striggio,  some  thirty  odd  years  before  "Euridice"  was  produced, 
had  not  only  forestalled  but  surpassed  his  immediate  successors  by  the  employ- 
ment of  an  orchestra  of  which  more  than  half  were  stringed  instruments;  again, 
seven  of  these  were  played  with  a  bow.  So  that,  considering  the  primitive 
methods  then  in  use,  the  constitution  of  Striggio's  orchestra  was  unique.  It 
consisted  of  six  lutes,  seven  viols,  two  gravicembali,  six  flutes,  eight  cometti  and 
tromboni,  all  of  variated  types  and  sizes. 

The  above  enumeration  brings  to  mind  the  pre-existence  of  a  rather  hetero- 
geneous assortment  of  now  partially  obsolete  instruments  with  which  we  are  more 
or  less  familiar.  Therefore,  before  proceeding  from  the  subject  of  instrumentation 
to  that  of  orchestration  proper  as  inaugurated  by  Monteverde,  a  review  of  the 
structural  and  mechanical  evolution  of  instruments  themselves  would  seem  in 
place. 

(Summary  on  page  26.) 


CHAPTER  III. 

EVOLUTION  OF  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

The  first  serious  attention  bestowed  upon  the  mechanism  of  instruments  and 
the  selection  of  those  whose  qualities  should  justify  permanent  retention  occurred 
during  the  sixteenth  century,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  the  causes  that  led  up  to  this 
were  extraneous.  In  glancing  over  the  names  and  descriptions  of  the  many  vari- 
eties of  instruments  already  in  existence  before  this  development  began,  the  mind 
becomes  easily  confused.  Many  species  of  stringed  instruments  such  as  lutes, 
viols,  clavichords,  harpsichords,  not  to  mention  brass  instruments,  the  schalmei, 
cromomes,  abounded  on  every  hand;  but  the  deeper  the  student  of  instrumental 
evolution  delves  into  comparative  research,  the  more  he  finds  authorities  at  vari- 
ance. However,  the  lineage  of  the  three  great  representatives  of  stringed  instru- 
ments as  are  in  use  to-day  —  instruments  played  with  a  bow,  the  harp,  the  piano- 
forte, may  fairly  be  traced  simultaneously. 


L 

Prehistoric  origin  of  stringed  instruments,  in  spite  of  extant  relics,  is  a  matter 
of  conjecture.  History,  on  the  other  hand,  suggests  various  sources  in  various 
ages.  Of  greatest  recorded  antiquity  are  the  Egyptian  lute  and  harp,  which  were 
struck  with  a  plectrum  or  plucked  by  the  fingers.  These  migrated  through  Arabia 
into  Spain,  thence  to  Southern  Italy,  and  became  diffused  over  all  Europe.  The 
Greek  lyra  or  kithara,  having  originally  but  four  strings,  was  also  played  with  a 
plectrum,  and  became  the  heirloom  of  the  Romans.  But  to  discover  the  origin  of 
instruments  played  with  a  bow  is  a  more  difficult  matter.  A  number  of  theories 
are  plausible.  Like  all  other  instruments  they  were  probably  invented  simultane- 
ously by  many  isolated  barbaric  races.  The  bow  and  arrow  were  undoubtedly 
suggestive,  and  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  primitive  types  of  the  lyre  family  whose 
strings  were  originally  plucked,  were  fitted  to  uncouth  sounding-boards  and  played 
upon  with  a  bow.  The  Hindoos  possessed  such  instruments,  and  it  is  possible 
that  their  admission  into  Europe  was  concurrent  with  that  of  the  lute  and  harp. 
In  defence  of  this  supposition,  one  might  point  to  the  dance  of  the  women 
attending  the  Jongleurs.  Now  the  dance  is  no  uncertain  revealer  of  racial 
characteristics.  But  not  only  the  dance  itself,  but  also  certain  features  of  the 
accompaniment,    as  well  as   the  types   of  instruments  peculiar  to  the  Jongleurs 

8 


EVOLUTION    OF    MUSICAL    INSTRUMENTS 


bear  the  impress  of  Orientalism.  As  far  as  is  known,  neither  the  Greeks  nor  the 
Romans  possessed  instruments  played  with  a  bow. 

From  the  Middle  Ages  on,  the  study  of  instrumental  evolution  is,  of  course, 
based  upon  authentic  history.  The  most  direct  line  of  descent  for  bowed-mstru- 
ments  is  probably  from  either  the  Celtic  crwth  or  the  Oriental  rebab  to  the  vielle 
or  viola  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Spanish  vihuela,  Latin  fidula),  of  which  the  last  re- 
presentative was  the  gamba;  and  the  viola  da  gamba  was  the  predecessor  of  the 
violoncello.  The  early  viols  were  of  manifold  types,  there  being,  for  instance, 
as  many  as  seven  viole  da  braccia  and  six  viole  da  gambe.  The  violin  owes  its 
existence  to  a  gradual  metamorphosic  development  of  the  early  tenor  viola,  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuries.  Skill  in  the  manu- 
facture of  these  instruments  was  of  an  advanced  order  in  the  Netherlands 
prior  to  the  advent  of  the  great  Italian  violin  makers,  whose  efforts  were  eventually 
crowned  by  the  immutable  sovereignty  of  the  Cremonese  creations  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  eighteenth  centur)\  The  introduction  of  the  contrabasso  was  like- 
wise of  slow  growth.  For  as  late  as  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
there  still  existed  bass  instruments  of  the  lute  family,  such  as  the  double-necked 
theorbo  and  the  largest  bass  lute,  the  chitarrone,  which  were  struck  with  a  plec- 
trum. But  growing  appreciation  for  the  wonderful  possibilities  concealed  in  the 
infant  violin  proper,  of  technique,  tone,  color,  delicacy,  and  variety  of  shading, 
reacted  upon  the  secondary  bowed-instruments,  and  they  in  turn  were  rapidly 
perfected.  Hence,  by  a  judicious  selection  of  the  superior  and  a  suppression  of 
the  inferior  types  of  viols  were  the  violas  and  violoncellos  evolved ;  and  the  theorbo 
and  chitarrone  were  permanently  supplanted  by  the  double-bass,  constructed 
on  the  same  general  principles  as  the  violin. 

Although  the  ideal  balance  of  tone  and  expressive  powers  as  embodied  in  the 
modem  string  orchestra  justifies  the  perspicuity  of  this  selective  process  in  every 
way,  it  would  seem  to  be  a  matter  for  regret  that  a  certain  species  of  viols,  the 
viola  d'amore,  should  have  become  practically  obsolete.  Its  seven  strings  were  sup- 
plemented by  seven  concealed  under  strings,  designed  to  vibrate  sympathetically. 
One  might  say  that  this  principle  has  been  incorporated  in  the  modem  grand 
pianoforte  by  means  of  the  "  una  corda  "  pedal.  But  since  Meyerbeer  resusci- 
tated the  viola  d'amore  in  "  Les  Huguenots  "  in  1836,  the  only  living  composer 
who  has  assigned  to  it  a  conspicuous  role  is,  to  the  present  writer's  knowledge, 
Mr.  C.  M.  Loeffler  in  his  symphonic  poem  "  La  Mort  de  Tintagiles,"  after 
Maeterlinck,  indeed  the  original  score  contained  parts  for  two  solo  viole  d'amore 
though  one  part  has  since  been  rewritten  for  a  violin. 


lO  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


II. 

The  evolution  of  the  harp  is  obvious,  whereas  that  of  the  pianoforte  is  more 
complex.  The  prototype  of  the  modem  pianoforte  in  its  embryonic  state  traces 
its  ancestry  to  all  the  various  types  of  stringed  instruments  taken  collectively. 
Specifically,  the  primitive  acoustic  monochord  of  Pythagoras  might  be  looked 
upon  as  a  plausible  starting  point.  Add  to  this  a  keyboard  and  its  attendant 
devices  as  apphed  to  church  organs  in  the  earlier  centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
and  the  prototype  is  complete.  Be  that  as  it  may,  there  was  developed  during 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  a  family  of  widely  known  instruments  embody- 
ing advanced  qualities  of  mechanism,  styled  "  Hackbrett,"  synonym  for  cembalo, 
tympanon,  although  it  is  best  known  as  the  dulcimer.  According  to  Dr.  Riemann, 
it  originated  apparently  in  Germany,  since  for  a  time  it  was  called  in  Italy  by  the 
name  of  Salterio  tedesco.  The  instrument  consisted  of  a  flat  trapezium-shaped 
sounding-board  on  which  steel  strings  were  set,  and  was  played  upon  by  two  ham- 
mers held  one  in  each  hand  of  the  performer.  In  improved  form,  it  is  still  extant 
in  the  hands  of  the  gypsies.  But  already  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
was  the  clavichord  established  as  its  successor.  The  clavichord,  according  to 
Hipkins,  was  derived  from  the  polychord  with  four  strings,  which  in  turn  was 
developed  from  the  monochord  "  to  facilitate  the  melodic  division  of  the  Gre- 
gorian tones."  Directly  appeared  still  another  instrument  styled  clavicembalo 
or  harpsichord,  of  which  the  psaltery,  a  triangular  harp,  was  undoubtedly  the 
ancestor.  The  spinet  and  virginal  differed  from  the  harpsichord  only  as  to  shape; 
and  in  England,  virginal  was  the  general  term  for  spinet  and  harpsichord.  The 
cardinal  point  of  dissimilarity  between  the  mechanical  construction  of  the  clavi- 
chord and  the  harpsichord  was  that  the  strings  of  the  former  were  caused  to  sound 
by  means  of  metal  tangents,  which  struck  against  the  strings  and  then  pressed 
them  up,  whereas  the  strings  of  the  latter  were  plucked  by  hard  quills  set  in  wooden 
jacks.  But  of  far  greater  importance  was  the  difference  of  tone-quality.  The 
tone  of  the  clavichord  was  delicate,  subdued,  —  incapable  of  energetic  utterance, 
but  so  expressive  that  it  was  a  favorite  with  great  musicians;  that  of  the  harpsi- 
chord was  crisp,  short,  uniform.  A  radical  readjustment  of  mechanism  was 
found  necessary  in  order  to  combine  in  one  instrument  euphony  and  variation  of 
dynamic  force.  Therefore  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  hammer- 
action  was  invented,  and  the  pianoforte,  derived  from  the  dulcimer,  came  into 
existence.  Despite  this  fact,  both  the  clavichord  and  the  harpsichord  continued 
to  hold  their  own  beyond  the  boundaries  of  that  century.  And  so  we  see  that  the 
perfected  modem  pianoforte,  being  but  the  outcome  of  a  variety  of  instmments 
already  in  existence  three  hundred  years  ago,  was  unable  to  supersede  them  until 
the  nineteenth  century. 


EVOLUTION    OF    MUSICAL    INSTRUMENTS  il 

Turning  our  attention  again  to  instruments  belonging  to  the  orchestra  proper, 
we  find  an  inexhaustible  subject  in  the  evolution  of  the  two  other  great  families, 
the  wood  and  the  brass.  Most  of  the  above-advanced  hypotheses  in  respect  to 
origin  and  migration  of  strings  are  equally  pertinent  to  the  wind.  But  the  infer- 
ence that  the  genesis  of  these  latter  instruments  antedates  that  of  the  lyre  and 
lute  is  surely  justified  in  that  conch  shells  and  the  horns  of  animals  must  have 
offered  the  most  natural  means  for  producing  artificial  musical  tones.  Again, 
the  construction  of  stringed  instruments  suggests  a  more  advanced  stage  of  intel- 
lectuality. Finally,  there  have  been  preserved  to  us  from  antiquity  a  far  more 
numerous  and  varied  array  of  comparatively  natural  instruments  such  as  the  Egyp- 
tian mem  and  sebi, — respectively  vertical  and  horizontal  flutes,  of  which  the 
former  was  more  common  and  still  exists  in  the  guise  of  the  modern  Arab  flute. 
One  of  the  most  simple  species  of  horn  was  the  "  Schofar  "  or  ram's-hom,  used 
in  the  temple  worship  of  the  Hebrews.  The  Assyrians  as  well  as  the  Eg3q)tians 
possessed  trumpets,  probably  of  brass.  The  war  trumpets  of  the  Romans  were 
of  bronze.  The  deep-toned  trumpet  or  tuba  was  straight;  the  high-toned  lituus 
was  bent;  and  the  buccina,  large  trumpet  or  trombone,  was  curved. 

m. 

The  principle  of  both  single  and  double  reeds  was  understood  by  the  Greeks. 
As  a  result  of  the  researches  of  Professor  A.  A.  Howard,  an  accurate  description 
of  their  representative  instruments,  the  auloi,  Latin  tibiae,  is  to  be  found  in  "Har- 
vard Studies  in  Classical  Philology,"  Vol.  4.  His  article  presents  strong  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  the  belief  that  instrumental  polyphony  was  actually  practised 
by  the  Greeks.  Performers  upon  the  auloi  played  almost  invariably  upon  two 
pipes  at  once.  The  instruments  were  supplied  with  finger-holes,  were  capable 
of  producing  both  the  diatonic  and  chromatic  scales,  and  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes  corresponding,  ip.  a  general  way,  to  the  three  types  of  wood-winds 
as  are  in  use  to-day.  All  of  them  had  a  tube  of  cylindrical  bore,  but  most  of  them 
were  supplied  with  a  double  mouthpiece  like  the  modem  oboe,  so  that  these  species 
of  the  auloi  can  be  regarded  as  the  prototype  of  the  preferred  double-reeds  that 
prevailed  during  the  Middle  Ages  when  they  went  under  the  name  of  schalmei. 
This  nomenclature  is  confusing;  in  explanation  it  should  be  said  that  not  until 
after  the  original  schalmei  had  developed  into  the  pommer,  thence  to  the  oboe, 
was  the  single-reeded  predecessor  of  the  clarinet  known  by  this  name.  Collo- 
quialism refers  to  the  schalmei  in  its  later  application. 

Another  double-reed  that  came  into  temporary  existence  during  the  Middle 
Ages  was  the  variety  of  cromomes.  They  differed  from  the  schalmei  principally 
as  to  form  —  Krummhom. 


12  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

The  successors  of  the  original  schalmei  are  described  in  detail  by  Praetorius, 
who  wrote  in  the  first  decade  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Of  the  six  varieties  of 
pommer  mentioned  by  him,  the  treble  pommer  became  transformed  into  the 
hautbois  (high  wood);  the  alto  pommer  into  the  cor  Anglais  (cor  angl^,  bent  horn), 
—  known  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  as  the  oboe  da  caccia; 
and  out  of  the  bass  pommer,  likewise  styled  bombarde,  emanated  the  fagotto 
(bundle  of  fagots).  As  a  commentary  to  the  above  enumeration  one  should  take 
note  of  a  quite  remarkable  tendency  which  was,  indeed,  already  in  vogue  during 
the  Hellenic  age.  Namely,  that  from  each  parent  instrument  whether  string, 
wood,  or  brass,  there  germinated  a  complete  family  representing  the  four  ranges 
of  the  human  voice.  And  again  from  these  the  process  of  tribal  expansion  was 
carried  yet  further.  Moreover  it  must  be  remembered  that  before  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  art  of  combining  human  voices  in  polyphony  was  but  in  a  nascent  state, 
and  probably  existed  in  classic  Greece  not  at  all.  Therefore  famihes  of  instru- 
mental species  cannot  have  been  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  homo- 
geneous harmonic  effects.  An  extensive  range  of  con-natural  tone-color  was  then 
the  objective.  It  will  be  found  that  this  tendency  was  uniform  throughout  the 
history  of  instrumental  evolution.  Of  course  when  we  reach  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, we  find  that  the  advantage  of  distributing  the  components  of  harmony  among 
the  members  of  assimilated  instruments  began  to  be  appreciated.  It  is  possibly 
due  to  this  natural  evolution  that  innovators  in  orchestration  at  first  accustomed 
themselves  to  the  use  of  pure  tone-color  rather  than  of  mixed  tints.  Thus  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  fl<ite  k  bee,  predecessor  of  the  modem  flute,  was  employed 
in  groups  of  four.  Praetorius  makes  mention  of  no  less  than  eight  different  kinds 
as  prevalent  in  his  day.  Our  chief  representative  of  the  single  reed,  the  clarinet, 
which  was  not  invented  until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  owes  its  origin 
to  a  primitive  form  of  instrument  with  clarinet  mouthpiece:  —  the  mediaeval 
chalemiax  or  chalumeau,  whence  the  phonetic  rendition,  schalmei.  The  now  obso- 
lete basset-horn  belongs  properly  to  this  genealogy.  It  was  frequently  used  during 
the  time  of  its  development  by  the  composers  of  the  latter  eighteenth  and  early 
nineteenth  centuries.  From  it  were  devolved  the  short-lived  alto  and  tenor  clar- 
inets, and  the  better  qualities  of  all  three  are  now  embodied  in  the  subsequently 
perfected  bass-clarinet.  Mention  is  also  due  to  the  saxophone,  invented  by  Sax 
in  1840.  It  should  be  classed  under  the  heading  of  wood  instruments  rather 
than  of  brass,  since  its  tone-quality  partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  the  clari- 
net. It  has  a  single-reed  mouthpiece,  and  the  fingering  is  akin  to  that  of  the  clar- 
inet; but  the  over-blowing  produces  the  octave  as  in  the  flute  and  oboe,  whereas 
in  the  clarinet  the  twelfth  is  produced.  Sax  made  seven  different  sized  saxophones, 
of  which  four  are  commonly  in  use,  and  that  particularly  in  French  and  American 
military  bands. 


EVOLUTION    OF    MUSICAL    INSTRUMENTS  13 

IV. 

The  history  of  brass  instruments  is  extensive;  at  the  same  time  their  develop- 
ment is  easy  to  trace.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  only  those  instruments 
possess  pedigree  from  which  upper  harmonics  are  produced,  i.  e.  those  constructed 
with  long  tube  and  narrow  bore.  Even  this  statement  must  be  qualified  in  that 
the  French  horn  is  of  modem  extraction.  Only  trumpets  and  trombones,  there- 
fore, are  directly  descended  from  the  early  Roman  instruments  with  cup-shaped 
mouthpieces,  such  as  the  lituus  and  buccina.  And  in  the  Middle  Ages  there  existed 
side  by  side  two  such  families,  —  the  Zinken,  and  the  trombe  and  tromboni.  The 
Zink  or  cometto  had  a  wooden  tube  pierced  by  sounding  holes,  and  was  constructed 
in  different  sizes.  The  larger  species  was,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
transformed  into  the  Serpent,  which  had  a  bell  of  brass.  This  instrument  is  still 
in  use  in  some  Italian  military  bands.  The  Zinken  were  extant  in  the  hands  of 
the  "town  musicians"  even  into  the  eighteenth  century.  Akin  to  them  are  the 
simple  Alpine  Horn  and  the  Lur  of  Norway. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  trumpet  was  generally  made  of  brass,  and  the  tube  was 
at  first  unbent.  The  principle  of  sliding  tubes  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  addi- 
tional tones  to  the  natural  ones  of  an  instrument  was  of  ancient  origin.  It  was 
applied  to  trumpets  as  well  as  to  trombones,  a  practice  still  in  force  in  England. 
The  obvious  advantage  of  this  device  was  that  a  complete  chromatic  scale  could 
be  obtained,  impossible  for  all  other  brass  instruments  at  a  time  when  crooks  and 
valves  were  unknown.  The  earlier  name  for  the  trombone,  i.  e.  bass  trumpet, 
was  sackbut,  but  the  original  appellation,  buccina,  has  been  perpetuated  in  the 
German  Bosaun,  now  Posaune. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  the  tromba,  synonym  for  clarino,  trunmiet,  together 
with  the  three  genres  of  trombones  as  used  by  the  subsequent  great  classicists, 
was  already  perfected  as  a  sliding-tube  instrument.  Or  one  might  include  both 
instruments  under  one  heading  by  speaking  of  the  tromba  as  a  treble  trombone. 
However,  in  order  to  obtain  more  efficient  high  brass  instruments,  constant  experi- 
ments were  made.  The  earlier  improvements  had  obviated  the  clumsy  length 
of  brass  instruments  by  bending  and  rebending  their  tubes.  Then  followed  the 
application  to  the  brass  of  the  finger-hole  system  of  the  wooden  Zinken.  Finally, 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  introduction  of  removable  crooks  improved  the  trombe 
as  far  as  quality  of  tone  is  concerned.  But  the  highest  point  of  evolution  was 
arrived  at  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the  perfection  of  the  chromatic 
valve  principle  revolutionized  not  only  the  mechanism  but  also  the  manner  of 
writing  for  trumpets  as  well  as  for  horns  and  bugles. 

As  has  been  intimated  above,  the  history  of  the  French  horn  is  short.  There  is 
but  a  slight  analogy  between  it  and  the  cor  de  chasse  of  the  Middle  Ages,  an  instru- 


14  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

ment  that  possessed  but  few  tones.  The  genuine  French  horn  made  its  appear- 
ance in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  stages  of  its  development 
may  be  regarded  as  centennial.  In  the  eighteenth  century  was  added  the  crook 
principle,  in  the  nineteenth,  the  valve  system.  These  improvements  were  attend- 
ant upon  those  made  upon  trumpets.  Like  the  trumpet,  the  "natural "  horn  was 
conducive  to  purity  of  tone,  the  chromatic  horn  to  greater  practicability  without 
material  loss  of  purity. 

The  family  of  bugles  belong  more  properly  to  the  subject  of  military  bands, 
but  a  word  is  due  to  their  evolution  on  account  of  the  orchestral  importance  of 
one  of  their  members  —  the  bass  tuba.  The  bugle-horn,  also  known  as  the  sax- 
horn, is  constructed  on  acoustic  principles  diametrically  opposed  to  those  of  the 
trombe  family  in  that  the  bore  is  wider  and  the  tube  shorter,  whereby  the  principle 
of  obtaining  harmonics  is  reversed. 

The  date  of  Beethoven's  birth  signalized  the  first  application  of  key  mechanism 
to  wood  instruments.  Simultaneously,  experiments  were  made  upon  the  now- 
obsolete  brass  Zinken.  The  new  instrument  was  called  bugle  a  clefs,  and  was  the 
forerunner  of  a  group  of  different  sized  opheicleides,  of  which  the  lowest  supplanted 
the  sixteenth  century  Serpent.  Subsequently  the  opheicleide  itself  was  super- 
seded by  the  bass  tuba,  a  more  noble  instrument  of  the  same  general  family. 


The  evolution  of  instruments  of  percussion  requires  but  brief  mention,  Sound- 
producing  apparatus  devoid  of  definite  pitch  belongs  to  the  initial  attempts  of 
primitive  men  to  assist  vocal  expression  of  emotional  feeling,  to  accompany  reli- 
gious orgies,  or  to  encourage  their  warriors  on  the  march.  The  modem  orchestra 
includes  the  best  of  these  primitive  species,  transformed  into  perfected  types  of 
genuine  artistic  value,  and  has  also  drawn  into  requisition  various  instruments 
originating  in  countries  that  are  far  apart.  Most  commonly  used  are  the  bass- 
drum,  the  cymbals,  and  the  triangle.  The  family  of  drums  further  includes  the 
long  side-drum  and  the  small  military  drum.  With  the  cymbals  and  triangle 
belong  the  tam-tam  or  Chinese  gong,  the  Oriental  and  Spanish  tambourine,  the 
Spanish  and  Neapolitan  castanets,  and  the  Turkish  crescent  or  bell-rattle.  The 
use  of  all  such  instruments  is,  of  course,  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  Their 
mission  is  primarily  to  suggest  "local"  coloring  or  to  emphasize  rhythm  for 
dancing. 

Instruments  of  percussion  possessing  definite  and  variable  pitch  are  repre- 
sented primarily  by  the  kettle-drums,  which  are  constant  and  indispensable  mem- 
bers of  the  orchestra.    The  early  Hackbrett  or  dulcimer  might  abo  be  classed 


EVOLUTION    OF    MUSICAL    INSTRUMENTS  15 

under  this  heading,  which  further  includes  the  various  sets  of  bells,  such  as  the 
carillon  or  Glockenspiel  of  Chinese  origin,  together  with  the  Stahlspiel  or  Lyra, 
and  the  Xylophone. 


This  sketch  demonstrates  the  fact  that  the  early  evolution  of  instruments  went 
hand  in  hand  with  that  of  music  in  general  and  is  subject  to  identical  hypotheses. 
With  the  dawn  of  secular  music,  the  development  of  instrumental  construction 
and  mechanism  is  focused  upon  the  sixteenth  century,  with  emphasis  upon  the 
anterior  practice  of  employing  complete  homogeneous  groups. 

In  order  to  cover  the  entire  ground,  this  survey  of  the  development  of  musical 
instruments  has  necessarily  transgressed  the  bounds  of  the  sixteenth  century  per- 
spective. And  since  we  are  about  to  recontinue  a  critical  review  of  the  orchestra 
as  inherited  by  Monteverde,  it  will  be  well  to  remember  that  in  his  day  the  only 
orchestral  instruments  in  the  modem  sense  of  the  word  were  violins  and  viols, 
harps,  flutes,  pommers,  cometti,  trumpets,  trombones.  In  combination  with  these, 
lutes,  guitars,  organs,  the  clavichord  and  the  harpsichord  were  still  employed. 

(Summary  oa  page  26.) 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BEGINNINGS   OF   ORCHESTRATION. 

I. 

^*^Claudio  Monteverde  (i 567-1643)  is  justly  styled  the  founder  of  the  modem 
orchestra;  but  although  modem  orchestral  organization  owes  its  substratum  of 
solidity  and  balance  of  tone  to  him,  only  indirectly  was  he  led  to  attain  this  end, 
for  his  paramount  objective  was  artistic  expression.  Naturally,  the  employment 
of  artistically  grouped  instruments  appealed  to  him  as  the  most  flexible  convey- 
ance for  expressive  thought.  Again,  Monteverde  was  instinctively  a  dramatic 
writer,  so  that  as  a  matter  of  course  the  histrionic  efiForts  of  the  Florentine  experi- 
mentalists attracted  him.  Finally,  when  Monteverde  entered  upon  his  dramatic 
career  after  having  already  become  celebrated  as  a  writer  of  madrigals  and  of 
other  vocal  forms,  pure  choral  music  as  perfected  by  Palestrina  and  Lasso  was 
at  its  zenith,  and  instrumentation  in  its  elementary  state  was  inseparable  from 
the  drama,  —  it  being  understood  that  the  early  attempts  at  oratorio  in  the  stilo 
rappresentativo  were  built  on  the  same  general  principles  as  the  early  operas,  with- 
out differentiation  in  musical  or  instrumental  treatment.  Nor  were  the  incipient 
efforts  at  orchestral  accompaniment  to  religious  worship  of  sufficient  importance  to 
be  taken  into  consideration.  Therefore,  Monteverde's  contribution  to  the  chain 
of  aesthetic  and  practical  musical  development  consists  of  his  successful  search 
after  expressive  and  dramatic  effects  and  his  reconstruction  of  the  orchestra.  He 
also  broke  away  from  the  Church  Modes,  employed  a  system  of  harmony  nearer 
akin  to  our  own,  made  free  use  of  the  Chord  of  the  Dominant  Seventh,  and  intro- 
duced bolder  harmonies  and  unprepared  dissonances.  These  harmonic  innova- 
tions were  already  noticeable  in  his  earlier  vocal  compositions. 

As  we  have  seen.  Peri  contributed  much  to  his  successors  from  a  dramatic 
standpoint,  but  as  for  expression,  the  Florentine  pseudo  music  dramas  consisted 
of  a  monotonous  and  long-spun  succession  of  primitive  and  dreary  recitativi 
with  but  little  support  other  than  a  basso  coniinuo  and  meagre  chords,  whereas 
Monteverde,  absorbed  in  the  discovery  of  means  by  which  he  might  emphasize 
expression,  developed  tme  creative  talent  in  a  diversity  of  ways.  For  although 
his  chord  successions  were  still  crude  and  his  perspective  for  design  but  slightly 
evolved,  his  realization  of  the  importance  of  stage  effects  led  him  to  intensify  the 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  i  to  5. 
16 


BEGINNINGS    OF    ORCHESTRATION  1 7 

dramatic  action,  to  vary  the  tone-color,  to  extend  the  functions  of  the  accompani- 
ment to  the  voice,  and  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  constant  recitativo  by  a  more 
liberal  and  artistic  use  of  the  arioso. 

These  innovations  were  destined  to  wield  far-reaching  influence.  Though 
admiration  for  the  earlier  pure  choral  style  was  soon  rekindled  in  Italy,  it  was 
not  long  before  the  two  styles,  the  old  and  the  new,  were  combined,  as  embodied 
in  the  oratorios  of  Carissimi;  and  Schiitz,  who  had  been  taught  by  Giovanni  Ga- 
brieli  of  Venice,  transplanted  these  Italian  methods  into  Germany.  But  the  direct 
line  of  development  from  Monteverde's  dramatic  theories  is  to  be  traced  through 
Cavalli,  and  from  him  through  Lulli,  into  France,  thenceforth  the  permanent 
home  for  histrionic  displays;  for  Italy  turned  to  a  more  careful  consideration  of 
melodic  beauty  and  taste  for  design,  whereas  the  disciples  of  Schiitz,  though  cul- 
tivating the  new  principles  especially  in  oratorio,  still  retained  their  German  char- 
acteristics. 

Turning  to  Monteverde's  labors  in  the  field  of  instrumentation,  we  find,  in 
place  of  the  very  rudimentary  and  heterogeneous  combinations  heretofore  employed, 
a  well-defined  and  fairly  logical  assortment  of  instruments,  the  nuclei  of  which 
were  strings,  and  it  is  the  establishment  of  this  nucleus  that  is  epoch  making. 
True,  his  first  dramatic  attempt,  "Orfeo,"  was  scored  for  organs,  harpsichords, 
lutes,  harps,  guitars,  trombones,  trumpets,  flutes,  and  various  members  of  the 
viol  family,  including  so-called  little  French  violins,  (»>  constituting  an  orchestra 
of  thirty-six  men,  of  whom  nearly  one  third  were  performers  upon  brass  instru- 
ments. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  necessary  to  take  several  contingencies  into  con- 
sideration. In  the  first  place,  this  orchestra,  like  Cavalieri's,  was  concealed  behind 
the  scenes,  instructive  in  its  suggestion  for  the  modem  sunken  orchestra  at  Bay- 
reuth.  Again,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  loud-voiced  trumpets  were  muted, 
a  device  sometimes  employed  for  special  effects  in  modem  scoring.  (As  to  this 
supposition,  however,  the  present  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  instruments 
actually  employed  were  the  cornetti  mutt  or  soft-speaking  trumpets  of  wood,  and 
that  in  translation,  the  word  "muted"  has  been  erroneously  applied.)  Finally, 
although  Monteverde  was  not,  like  Peri  and  Cavalieri,  content  to  depend  entirely 
upon  the  performers  to  supply  the  necessary  chords  and  embellishments,  never- 
theless in  the  art  of  instrumentation  he  was  but  a  pioneer,  and  most  of  his  accom- 
paniments were  light  and  of  a  primitive  nature.  The  very  simplicity  of  his  rudi- 
mentary method  of  scoring  is  proof  that  neither  he  nor  his  contemporaries  could 
have  realized  the  resonant  powers  of  so  formidable  an  aggregation  of  brass  when 
properly  handled;  and  just  this  non-realization  was  propitious  for  the  early  devel- 
opment of  the  orchestra,  in  that,  by  negative  means,  noisy  trivialities  were  excluded 
from  the  scores  of  the  early  masters.     But  in  antithesis  to  this  imdue  preponder- 

(a)  Ex.  2. 


i8  THE    EVOLUTION    OF   MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

ance  of  metallic  tone-quality,  the  employment  of  no  less  than  seventeen  instru- 
ments played  with  a  bow  was  an  immense  stride  forward,  especially  when 
we  consider  the  fact  that  within  the  same  decade  lutes  and  the  harpsichord  had 
constituted  the  body  of  embryo  orchestras. 

At  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  there  were  still  many  varieties  of  the  viol 
family,  but  the  value  of  the  erroneously  styled  "little  French  violin"  is  said  to  have 
been  first  appreciated  by  Monteverde,  who  introduced  it  into  his  orchestra  where 
its  inestimable  value  was  at  once  recognized.  Profiting  by  this  felicitous  innova- 
tion, he  continued  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  the  string  band,  enlarged  it, 
and,  by  a  judicious  suppression  of  the  weaker  members  of  the  viol  family,  estab- 
lished a  body  of  strings  that  conforms,  at  least  approximately,  to  the  violins,  violas, 
'cellos,  and  basses  of  the  present  day. 

Having  once  for  all  instituted  a  rational  and  permanent  foundation  for 
obtaining  solidity  of  tone  combined  with  facility  of  execution,  it  was  a  matter  of 
course  that  the  brass  should  ultimately  appear  in  more  logical  proportion  to  the 
strings.  The  progress  of  the  wood-wind  was  of  slower  growth,  largely  due  to 
technical  imperfections  and  mechanical  difficulties  of  performance.  But,  con- 
sidering the  means  at  his  disposal,  a  commendable  appreciation  for  contrasted 
groups  of  instruments  is  embodied  in  the  pages  of  his  later  works,  —  indeed, 
already  in  "Orfeo"  can  be  traced  this  tendency  to  enhance  the  dramatic  situation 
by  means  of  judicious  tone-coloring.  Oft-quoted  illustrations  are  the  accompani- 
ment of  Pluto's  songs  by  four  trombones,  the  lament  of  Orpheus  by  bass  viols, 
the  chorus  of  spirits  by  organi  di  legno.  And  in  his  riper  works,  intelligent  instru- 
mentation and  characteristic  orchestration  progress  simultaneously.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  tremolo,  pizzicato,  and  other  dramatic  and  expressive  devices  is 
attributed  to  him.  He  showed  some  system  of  scoring,  which  included  more  spe- 
cific instructions  for  the  performers  than  had  hitherto  been  the  custom.  ^''^  And 
the  fact  that  he  distinguished  between  vocal  and  instrumental  effects  is  of  historic 
value  in  that  it  paved  the  way  for  the  advent  of  purely  orchestral  composition.  (*> 

(b)  Ex.  I. 

(*)  Monteverde's  admitted  position  at  the  dawn  of  orchestration  constitutes  so  vast  a  point  of  departure 
in  scientific  method,  that  the  unprejudiced  writer  of  to-day  must,  toward  Monteverde  rather  than  toward 
anyone  else,  weigh  and  sift  opinions  as  to  his  intention,  however  much  these  opinions  combat  each 
other.  The  statements  of  the  present  writer  that  Monteverde  was  the  first  to  suggest  instrumental 
characterization  in  his  music  —  the  same  being  evidenced  in  the  scores  that  have  come  down  to  us  — 
are  supported  by  the  majority  of  investigators.  There  are,  however,  others  who  have  followed  the  same 
trail  and  whose  conclusions  are  as  worthy  of  future  credence.  These  declare  that  it  is  only  a  fantjistic 
conceit,  which  grew  out  of  the  circumstance  that  in  the  list  of  characters  and  instruments  in  the  prefatory 
matter  of  the  score  of  Monteverde's  "  Orfeo, "  there  is  a  chance  association  like  Pluto's  name  standing 
opposite  the  trombones,  etc.,  which,  falsely  reasoned,  has  placed  Monteverde  in  an  epoch-making  niche 
where  he  should  not  be. 


BEGINNINGS    OF    ORCHESTRATION  19 

II. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  direct  successors  of  Monteverde  should  have  been 
more  or  less  blind  to  the  latent  powers  of  this  newly  vitalized  organism,  —  this 
prototype  of  the  modern  orchestra.  Even  Carissimi  (1604)  cannot  be  included 
among  the  progressive  writers  for  the  orchestra,  indeed,  his  art  of  scoring  stands 
lower  than  Monteverde's.  Of  course,  in  the  development  of  oratorio,  his  drama- 
tic influence  was  of  great  importance.  He  caused  the  monodic  style  to  advance 
rapidly,  by  infusing  into  recitativo  and  the  aria  more  spontaneity,  into  instru- 
mental accompaniment  greater  interest.  Though  inferior  to  Monteverde  in 
originality,  Carissimi  evinced  a  keener  appreciation  for  plastic  and  tonal 
effects.  His  eminent  pupil,  Cesti  (1620),  is  likewise  to  be  remembered  less  for 
his  instrumentation  than  for  his  further  development  of  recitativo  and  the  da  capo 
aria  in  connection  with  the  operatic  stage. 

On  the  other  hand,  Cavalli  (1600),  apart  from  the  fortuitous  influence  his 
sojourn  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV  had  upon  Lulli,  inherited  a  more  decided  talent 
for  orchestration  from  Monteverde,  whose  pupil  he  was.  His  interesting  experi- 
ments in  writing  accompaniments  for  two  violins  and  a  bass  established  a 
precedent  that  survived  the  test  of  many  years.  Like  Monteverde,  his  instincts 
were  strongly  dramatic,  but  perhaps  his  connection  with  St.  Mark's  Church 
modified  his  style  of  writing  for  the  orchestra.  For  more  especially  his  a  capella 
sacred  works  are  imbued  with  considerable  warmth  of  expression,  and  show 
sentient  regard  for  melody,  rhythm,  and  form.  And  thus,  even  as  Carissimi 
displayed  but  little  feeling  for  purely  instrumental  effects,  though  holding  a  unique 
position  as  a  composer  of  oratorio,  so  Cavalli  must  be  regarded  as  primarily  a 
dramatic  writer,  —  indeed,  among  the  immediate  successors  of  Monteverde,  he 
alone  succeeded  in  substantially  furthering  dramatic  development  in  Italy,  that 
is  to  say,  the  development  of  dramatic  ideals  as  had  been  attempted  by  the 
Florentine  neophytes  of  Greek  tragedy.  For  as  Langhans  expresses  it:  "After 
him  Italian  opera  gradually  diverges  from  the  path  originally  taken,  and  sacri- 
fices the  antique  simplicity  aimed  at  by  its  founders  to  the  ever  increasing  demand 
for  sensuous  charm.  The  alliance  of  poetry  and  music,  dissolved  in  the  Middle 
Ages  and  renewed  but  a  few  decades  before,  is  again  broken  off,  and  the  equili- 
brium that  had  just  been  acquired  is  sacrificed  anew  to  the  claims  of  music." 

III. 

But  while  the  nature  of  Italian  music  after  Cavalli's  time  was  subject  to 
variable  influences,  France  took  up  the  cause  of  drama  with  enthusiasm,  and  in 
this  field  Lulli  (1633-1687)  looms  up  as  the  sole  dictator  of  his  age.    Favored 


20  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

by  the  extravagant  demands  for  display  and  spectacular  effects  prevalent  at  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV,  Lulli  proceeded  to  develop  dance  forms  as  had  been  inaugur- 
ated by  his  predecessor,  Cambert,  whose  position  he  usurped.  The  hallet  de  cour, 
already  in  vogue  in  France,  consisted  of  dances,  dialogues  set  to  music,  combined 
with  dramatic  episodes.  Out  of  this  native  form  of  entertainment,  modem 
French  opera  was  destined  to  germinate.  Having  found  this  a  suitable  prototype 
as  a  basis  for  his  operas,  Lulli  proceeded  to  imbue  it  with  exotic  principles.  Like 
Monteverde,  he  discarded  the  ecclesiastical  modes.  Again,  he  adhered  strictly 
to  the  requirements  of  his  text,  and  developed  declamatory  recitative  as  promul- 
gated by  Cavalli.  And  to  the  reactive  influence  of  the  Italian  monodic  theorem 
upon  French  literature  during  this  brilliant  period  of  Comeille,  Moli^re,  Racine, 
does  France  owe  the  excellence  of  her  declamation. 

But,  considering  the  versatility  of  the  man,  once  again  a  disappointing  analogy 
to  the  peculiarly  prominent  deficiency  of  Carissimi  and  Cavalli  confronts  us. 
For  Lulli's  orchestration  was,  like  that  of  Meyerbeer  two  hundred  years  later, 
sensational  rather  than  of  enduring  worth.  By  no  means  is  Lulli's  universal 
genius  as  organizer,  composer  and  orchestrator  to  be  undervalued,  nor  is  the 
importance  of  his  influence  upon  subsequent  French  music  to  be  lost  sight  of. 
But  it  is  evident  that  the  direct  evolution  of  really  stable  instrumentation  was 
benefited,  during  this  period,  more  by  the  crowning  achievements  of  Scarlatti, 
and  by  the  labors  of  the  secondary  Italian  composers,  who  devoted  themselves 
more  especially  to  purely  instrumental  music,  and  thereby  sowed  the  seed  for 
subsequent  purely  orchestral  music  in  Germany.  It  is  true  that  credit  is  due  to 
Lulli  for  having  introduced  into  his  orchestra  a  large  variety  of  instruments,  which 
he  used  with  considerable  skill,  although  all  of  them  were  not  suitable  for  per- 
manent retention;  but  it  would  appear  to  the  present  writer  that  Lavoix,  in  his 
"Histoire  de  L'Instrumentation,"  page  216,  is,  perhaps,  somewhat  extravagant 
in  his  eulogy  of  Lulli's  orchestration,  especially  since  he  previously  makes  but 
passing  reference  to  that  of  Scarlatti.  Again,  similar  use  of  solo  effects  and  of 
contrasted  groups  of  instruments  as  cited  by  Lavoix  is  also  to  be  found  in  the 
scores  of  Lulli's  predecessors  and  contemporaries  in  Italy.  Indeed  one  might 
say  that  in  general  the  efforts  of  these  early  composers  to  obtain  genuinely  charac- 
teristic tone-color  are  apt  to  be  overestimated,  for,  as  Lavoix  himself  subsequently 
acknowledges  in  regard  to  Lulli:  —  "II  faut  I'avouer,  c'etait  encore  au  violon 
qu'il  avait  confix  ses  scenes  symphoniques  les  plus  delicates  et  les  plus  expres- 
sives."  Finally,  even  though  strings  formed  the  basis  of  his  orchestra,  augmented 
by  wind  instruments  both  wood  and  brass,  the  irrepressible  harpsichord,  solicitous 
for  the  welfare  of  her  flock,  and  fearful  lest  emancipation  from  her  protectorate 
should  result  in  chaos,  still  closely  followed  the  harmonic  delineations  of  the  legiti- 
mate orchestral  instruments,  supporting  them,  as  it  were,  in  concentual  leading- 


BEGINNINGS    OF    ORCHESTRATION  2i 

strings!  Had  Lulli  and  his  contemporaries  understood  the  art  of  judiciously 
distributing  the  notes  of  a  chord  throughout  the  orchestra,  not  to  mention  the 
proper  choice  in  number  and  species  of  instrument,  this  custom  would  have  soon 
fallen  into  disuse;  and,  as  we  know,  not  until  this  did  take  place  one  hundred  years 
later,  was  it  possible  to  obtain  ideal  solidity,  balance  of  tone,  contrast,  and  variety. 
By  a  coincidence,  the  year  of  Beethoven's  birth  sounded  the  death-knell  of  the 
orchestral  harpsichord,  for  in  the  opera  "Mitridate,"  written  in  that  year,  Mozart 
was  the  last  of  the  great  composers  to  employ  it  as  a  regular  component  of  the 
orchestra. 

To  Lulli,  therefore,  orchestration  was  but  a  secondary  issue,  in  spite  of  the 
importance  he  attached  to  it.  Form,  on  the  other  hand,  was  permanently 
benefited  by  his  labors,  whereas,  in  musical  history,  he  occupies  the  second  of 
the  four  pedestals  sustaining  the  arch  that  spans  the  realm  of  pure  music  drama, 
and  retires  into  the  mythical  haze  of  Hellenic  tragedy. 


IV. 

As  intimated  above,  further  survey  of  the  field  of  instrumentation  in  Italy 
discovers  commendable  activity,  such  as  was  displayed  by  Legrenzi;  by  Stefifani 
and  Clari;  by  the  violinists  Torelli,  Vivaldi,  and  especially  Corelli;  finally,  by  the 
greatest  musician  both  active  and  creative  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Scarlatti. 

The  labors  of  Legrenzi  (1625)  are  worthy  of  consideration  on  account  of  his 
logical  development  of  the  constituency  of  the  orchestra.  As  Maestro  at  San  Marco, 
Venice,  he  increased  the  number  of  instrumentalists  at  that  church  to  over  thirty. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  he  employed  almost  exclusively  violins  and  viols,  supported 
in  the  bass  by  four  theorbos  (i.  e.  bass  instruments  of  the  lute  family).  The 
wood-wind  was  represented  by  a  solitary  bassoon,  whereas  two  comets  and  three 
trombones  replaced  Monteverde's  earlier  assortment  of  brass.  And  thus,  already 
in  the  seventeenth  century  was  found  a  man  whose  perspicuity  in  the  choice  of  a 
modest  band  of  loud-voiced  instruments  commended  itself  for  some  of  the  mightiest 
climaxes  of  Beethoven's  immortal  works. 

The  significance  of  chamber  music  as  fostered  by  Steffani  (1655)  ^^^  Clari 
(1669)  is,  of  course,  well  known  in  musical  history.  And  the  wonderful  impetus 
given  to  the  art  of  violin-making,  by  stimulating  a  development  of  executive  tech- 
nique, brought  forth  fruit  that  culminated  in  the  regency  of  a  number  of  famous 
violinist-composers.  Among  these,  Torelli  (died  1708),  for  the  creation  of  the 
concerto  grosso,  Vivaldi  (died  1743),  for  the  development  of  harmonic  design  and 
figuration  characteristic  of  his  instrument,  and  Corelli  (1653-1713),  for  combining 
principles  of  harmony  with  contrapuntal  devices,  rendered  invaluable  service  to 


22  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

the  nascent  architecture  of  modem  string  writing.  For  by  exploring  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  violin,  by  establishing  its  superiority  as  a  solo  instrument,  by 
demonstrating  not  only  its  potentiality  but  also  its  limitations  in  relation  to  other 
instruments,  there  arose,  in  consequence,  a  more  delicate  perception  as  to  the 
necessary  constitution  of  an  evenly  balanced  string  band.  This  acquirement  was 
accompanied  by  improved  methods  of  writing  for  the  strings. 

No  composer  of  his  time  combined  these  requirements  more  successfully 
than  Corelli,  for  the  types  of  composition  which  occupied  his  attention  were  the 
precursors  of  the  classic  sonata,  and  his  contributions  thereto  mark  the  starting 
point  of  genuinely  artistic  instrumental  music.  Corelli's  relation  to  chamber 
music  and  the  concerto  is  as  that  of  Monteverde  to  the  orchestra.  Neither  of 
them  was  a  radical  reformer;  they  both  proceeded  along  the  more  conservative 
lines  of  evolution,  selection,  elaboration.  The  scaffolding  of  their  respective 
spheres  of  activity  had  already  been  reared  by  that  countless  throng  of  forgotten 
and  unappreciated  workers,  whose  mission  it  is  to  make  smooth  the  path  for  the 
greater  lights,  that  appropriate  and  mould  into  collectaneous  form  the  puny  though 
individual  originality  of  the  lesser.  But  whereas  nothing  more  than  a  pious  interest 
in  an  historic  heirloom  has  preserved  Monteverde's  efforts  from  falling  into  oblivion, 
those  of  Corelli  have  been  perpetuated  by  reason  of  their  intrinsic  merit. 


V. 

The  highest  development  of  productive  musical  art  during  the  seventeenth 
century  culminated  in^*^  Scarlatti  (1659-1725).  And  orchestration  was  aided  by 
him  to  no  small  degree.  Of  course,  his  name  is  primarily  coupled  with  the  Nea- 
politan operatic  principles,  —  principles  that  ultimately  led  to  baneful  results,  in 
spite  of  having  enriched  the  world  with  sensuous  and  beautiful  melody.  Only  a 
cursory  review  of  Scarlatti's  expansive  activity  is  permissible  as  being  mostly 
irrelevant  to  our  subject.  Reared  in  the  characteristic  atmosphere  of  Carissimi's 
cantatas  and  oratorios,  impelled  by  poetic  instinct  and  fondness  for  melodic  design, 
he  enlarged  upon  the  da  capo  aria,  the  recitativo  accompagnato,  and  in  general  paid 
careful  attention  to  the  external  structure  of  the  separate  numbers  in  his  operas. 
Above  all,  Scarlatti  became  the  knight  errant  though  eventually  the  thrall  of  U 
bel  canto.  ^^^  Now  highly  developed  vocal  phraseology  demands  judicious  accom- 
paniment, and  good  orchestral  accompaniment  requires  a  nice  adjustment  of 
dynamic  force  combined  with  skill  in  writing.  It  was  fortunate,  therefore,  that 
Scarlatti  possessed  both  these  attributes;  and  through  the  channels  of  this  important 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  6  to  9. 
(a)  Ex.  7. 


BEGINNINGS    OF    ORCHESTRATION  23 

branch  of  orchestration,  independent  orchestration  received  permanent  form. 
Let  us  see  how  this  metamorphosis  took  place. 

Retrospection  shows  us  that  Peri,  initiating  a  rudimentary  dramatic  style  in 
place  of  Flemish  polyphony,  contributed  but  slightly  to  the  advancement  of  instru- 
mental accompaniment.  He  and  his  collaborators  wrote  little  more  than  a  figured 
bass  for  the  harpsichord,  and  at  performance  they  evoked  the  aid  of  the  adven- 
titious efforts  of  a  motley  aggregation  of  instrumentalists.  The  printed  scores  of 
Schiitz  are  equally  primitive.  In  France,  the  lyrical  stage  piece  of  Perrin  and 
Cambert,  "La  Pastorale"  (produced  in  1659  —  the  year  of  Scarlatti's  birth) 
showed  some  slight  improvement  in  the  art  of  scoring;  but  it  has  been  said  that 
even  Lulli  composed  his  operas  at  the  spinet,  and  at  times  delegated  various 
details  of  instrumentation  to  his  secretary,  Monteverde  established  a  nucleus 
of  strings.  Cavalli  developed  three-part  writing  for  two  violins  and  a  bass. 
Legrenzi  regulated  the  "distribution"  of  instruments.  Corelli  and  his  contem- 
poraries advanced  technique  of  performance  and  cultivated  instrumentation  in 
the  miniature. 

The  task  allotted  to  Scarlatti  was,  therefore,  not  difl&cult.  He  accepted  the 
already  established  supremacy  of  strings,  but  soon  realized  that  three-part  writing 
did  not  produce  even  balance  of  tone.  Consequently,  he  adopted  a  manner  of 
writing  which  comprised  a  division  of  the  violins  into  firsts  and  seconds.  He 
added,  moreover,  an  individual  part  for  the  violas,  and  thereby  established  a 
canon  of  phonetics  that  has  been  accepted  by  all  erudite  composers  since  his  time. 
It  is  true  that  these  characteristics  of  orchestration  cannot  be  said  to  have  originated 
with  him,  but  his  persistent  use  thereof  established  a  precedent  of  permanent 
value.  In  three-part  writing,  not  only  the  violoncellos  and  basses  progressed 
simultaneously  in  unison  or  octaves,  but  also  the  viola,  if  present,  reenforced  the 
bass  in  slavish  delineation.  It  is  obvious  that  this  practice  was  the  result  either 
of  sophism  or  of  indifference  and  ignorance.  And  the  fact  that  as  late  as  the 
eighteenth  century  no  less  a  composer  than  Haydn  and  even  Mozart  should  have 
continued  to  frequently  employ  three-part  writing  for  the  strings  is  certainly  a 
paradox,  and  tends  to  prove  how  circuitous  the  process  of  evolution  is.  However, 
Haydn  and  Mozart  had  such  perfect  command  of  florid  counterpoint,  that  no 
matter  what  the  distribution  of  string  parts  might  be,  the  results  were  invariably 
effective. 

Four  instead  of  three  notes  of  a  chord  being  now  properly  dispersed  among 
the  strings,  ^^^  Scarlatti  proceeded  to  enrich  his  orchestra  by  a  logical  employment 
of  wind  instruments  in  pairs.  The  harpsichord,  of  course,  continued  to  hold  its 
own,  but  the  Handelian  principle  of  long  held  notes  in  the  wind  against  more 
agile  string  passages  is  already  to  be  found  in  his  scores,  a  principle  of  which  Lulli 

(b)  Ex.  6. 


24  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

was  ako  cognizant.  But  Scarlatti's  orchestra  was  more  plastic  than  LuUi's,  and 
his  overtures  more  purely  instrumental. 

As  has  been  stated,  Italian  culture  of  the  violin  and  the  increasing  regard  in 
which  that  instrument  was  held,  led  to  the  development  of  execution  as  well  as  to 
an  appropriate  style  of  writing  for  it  on  a  well  defined  harmonic  basis.  These 
improvements  were,  moreover,  further  reflected  by  a  more  earnest  attention  to 
the  progress  of  other  instruments,  both  as  to  mechanism  and  technique.  As  a 
result,  musical  performances  improved  rapidly,  and  the  isolated,  purely  instru- 
mental numbers  of  the  opera,  heretofore  utterly  disregarded  by  the  public,  began 
to  excite  comment.  Whereupon  Scarlatti,  keen  to  perceive  any  nascent  inclina- 
tion on  the  part  of  his  audience,  turned  to  a  more  careful  consideration  of  the  over- 
ture. His  motives  for  doing  so  may  not  have  been  of  the  highest,  but  the  results 
were  directly  beneficial  in  that  by  eliciting  warm  approval,  these  overtures  were 
eventually  performed  as  concert  numbers  apart  from  the  opera.  Though  short 
in  form,  they  consisted  of  three  or  four  distinct,  well-rounded  movements,  and 
were  destined  to  become  the  prototype  of  the  classic  symphony. 

In  specifically  instrumental  music,  Scarlatti  paved  the  way  for  Bach  and  Handel 
by  writing  for  two  violins  and  a  violoncello,  treated  as  soli  instruments  to  an  accom- 
paniment of  a  string  orchestra. 

Finally,  the  components  of  his  orchestra  —  represented  in  his  most 
felicitous  scoring  by  violins,  violas,  'cellos,  double-basses,  two  oboes,  two 
bassoons,  two  horns  —  were  practically  identical  with  those  of  the  early  classicists. 

So  we  see  that  the  orchestra  as  bequeathed  by  Scarlatti  was  based  upon  a 
well  organized  body  of  strings,  supported  by  a  modest  array  of  wood  and  brass 
instruments.  DifiFerentiated  style  of  choral  and  instrumental  writing  was  accent- 
uated, and  although  polyphonic  mannerism  was  still  prevalent  in  orchestration,  a 
tendency  for  individualistic  instrumentation  was  at  least  apparent.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  latent  passion  of  the  violoncello,  when  emancipated  from  the  double-bass, 
was  as  yet  unknown;  and  the  harpsichord,  by  reenforcing  the  mner  harmonies, 
covered  the  deficiencies  of  the  wind  instruments.  That  the  mechanism  of  the 
latter  should  have  remained  in  so  immature  a  condition  at  a  time  when  the  delicate 
organism  of  the  ideal  string  quartet  had  already  been  perfected,  is  but  the  result 
of  natural  causes.  For  when  the  supremacy  of  the  viols  was  once  for  all  estab- 
lished, it  was  of  primary  importance  that  their  efficiency,  above  all  others,  should 
be  enhanced;  and  thus  subsidiary  instruments  were  for  the  time  subjected  to  at 
least  comparative  neglect. 

The  varied  labors  of  Purcell  (1658)  were  without  the  zone  of  eclectic  progression. 
Although  he  adapted  the  cyclic  style  of  Corelli,  and  kept  in  touch  with  the  music 
of  LuUi,  whom,  it  is  claimed,  he  even  excelled  in  instrumentation,  he  remained 
true  to  the  traditions  of  the  English  Church  and  English  drama. 


BEGINNINGS   OF   ORCHESTRATION  25 

VI. 

While  examining  the  progress  of  orchestration,  the  parallel  growth  of  organ 
and  clavier  music  should  not  be  forgotten.  A  comprehensive  glance  at  the  series 
of  important  writers  in  these  branches  will  suffice  to  refresh  the  memory. 

A  distinctive  style,  initiated  by  the  earlier  Itahan  composers,  Merulo,  Andreas 
and  Giovanni  GabrieU,  was  first  exploited  by  Frescobaldi  (1583).  He  promulgated 
a  novel  style  of  organ  playing  and  contributed  to  the  development  of  the  fugue. 
After  him,  organ  composition  became  the  prerogative  of  the  Germans,  and  the 
seventeenth  century  is  represented  by  Scheidt,  Froberger,  Kerl,  Reincken,  Bux- 
tehude,  finally  Pachelbel  (1653).  In  Germany,  Italy,  and  France,  the  subsequent 
chief  exponents  of  clavier  music  were  respectively  Kuhnau,  Domenico  Scarlatti, 
and  Couperin.    Coincidentally,  all  three  were  bom  in  the  same  decade  as  Bach. 

By  thus  comparing  the  prodigious  activity  displayed  in  every  branch  of  music, 
we  find,  as  the  ultimata  of  this  epoch,  that  homogeneity  in  general  had  given  place 
to  a  system  of  related  tonalities,  vitalized  rhythm,  diversified  figuration,  and  a 
rational  mode  of  expression.  Moreover  there  were  two  distinct  elements  to  build 
upon,  —  polyphony,  as  embodied  in  the  contrapuntal  sonata  da  chiesa,  and  the 
popular  dance,  the  pivot  of  the  sonata  da  camera.  These  two  styles  were  capable 
either  of  further  unassociated  development  or  of  reconciliation.  By  still  further 
adding  to  such  an  amalgamation  the  principle  of  reiteration  and  thematic  develop- 
ment of  a  single  thought  as  the  motive  for  a  composition,  we  have  as  a  resultant 
the  cyclic  form  —  first  the  Suite,  earhest  of  complex  forms,  then  the  Sonata. 

Musical  art  was  now  ready  for  a  master  hand  who  should  weld  its  component 
parts  firmly  together.    And  that  master  was  Bach. 

(Summary  on  page  27.) 


SUMMARY  OF  PART  I 

Chapter  I.    The  Cradle  of  Instrumental  Music. 

I.  Two  impelling  forces:  emotional  expression  of  human  feeling  and  pagan  religious 
rites,  account  for  musical  development  among  primitive  men. 

Authentic  history  traces  higher  development  through  Egypt  and  the  Orient  to  the 
Hellenic  races,  when  poetry  and  music  became  conjoined. 

n.  Under  the  protectorate  of  the  Roman  Church,  melody  acquired  plastic  form,  and  systems 
of  harmony,  notation,  and  measure  were  estabUshed. 

HE.  The  lyrics  of  the  troubadours  revived  a  cult  for  individual  emotionalism  —  the  inherent 
characteristic  of  the  Folk-song,  which  now  uifluenced,  and  finally  dominated  the  Gregorian  Chant. 
IV.  Polyphonic  choral  art  of  the  Netherland  School  developed  consecutively  contrapuntal 
technique,  euphony,  objective  emotionalism,  and  cuhninated  in  the  works  of  Lasso,  when  it  was 
rivalled  if  not  eclipsed  by  the  creations  of  Palestrina.  But  the  style  of  this  era  lacked  rhythm  and 
form.  These  essentials,  together  with  tonality  and  a  distinctive  secular  style,  were  subsequently 
to  be  developed  in  connection  with  solo  singing  and  independent  instrumental  music 

Chapter  II.    The  Dawn  of  Independent  Instrumentation. 

I.  A  desire  for  increased  vitality  and  florid  figuration  led  to  embellished  organ  accompani- 
ment. This  process  devolved  to  other  instruments.  Hence  instnmientation  acquired  individ- 
uality, contrast,  expansibility. 

II.  Search  for  intensified  expression  and  dramatic  effects  led  to  attempts  at  monody.  The 
principles  of  monody  are  to  be  traced  to  the  Miracle  Plays,  the  Troubadours,  the  Greek  tragedies. 
A  semblance  of  these  tragedies  as  transfused  into  Florentine  monody  led  to  recitative  and  lyric 
solo.  These  contained  the  germ  of  opera  and  oratorio,  for  which  accompaniment  was  a  requisite. 
In  consequence,  selective  acumen  for  species,  balance,  quality,  variety,  developed  orchestration. 

Chapter  HI.    Evolution  of  Musical  Instruments. 

From  primitive  stringed  instruments  played  with  a  bow,  such  as  the  Celtic  crwth  and  the 
Oriental  rebab,  devolved  the  vielle,  thence  the  subsequent  varieties  of  viols  proper,  finally,  at  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  modem  string  quartet. 

The  pianoforte  owes  its  origin  to  the  monochord  and  psaltery  with  key-board  attachment,  as 
developed  from  the  dulcimer  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  the  clavichord  and  harpsi- 
chord of  the  sixteenth  to  the  Hammerklavier  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  clavichord  was  de- 
rived from  the  monochord,  the  harpsichord  from  the  psaltery,  the  pianoforte  from  the  dulcimer. 
The  strings  of  the  dulcimer  were  played  upon  by  hammers  held  in  the  hand;  the  clavichord  strings 
were  mechanically  pressed  up;  those  of  the  harpsichord  were  plucked  by  quills;  whereas  the  piano- 
forte is  supplied  with  hammer-action. 

The  invention  of  wind  instruments  probably  antedates  that  of  strings.  Emanating  from 
the  ancient  Egyptian  vertical  flute,  the  flfite  a  bee  of  the  Middle  Ages  matured  into  the  modem 
horizontal  flute.  Akin  to  the  single-reed  species  of  the  Greek  aulos,  Latin  tibia,  were  the  popu- 
larized schahnei,  predecessors  of  the  pommer  and  oboe  famihes.  The  single-reeded  modem  clarinet, 
that  came  into  existence  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  chalemiax  of 
mediaevalism. 

26 


SUMMARY  OF  PART  I  27 

From  the  Roman  lituus  and  buccina  devolved  side  by  side  the  trombe  and  Zinken  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Experimental  development  through  the  stages  of  bent  tubes,  slide  mechanism, 
finger  holes,  removable  crooks,  chromatic  valves,  perfected  the  valve-tnmipet,  the  bugle-hom,  the 
slide-trombone. 

Instrimients  of  percussion  are  the  parents  of  all  other  instrimients.  Certain  species  subse- 
quently became  distinctly  characteristic  of  certain  distinct  races;  those  most  eflFective  are  now  in- 
corporated in  the  modem  orchestra.  Of  significant  importance  are  the  ketde-drums  by  reason 
of  their  imalloyed  artistic  value. 

Chapter  IV.    Beginnings  of  Orchestration. 

Monteverde's  creative  genius  led  to  three  tangible  results: —  (i)  Dramatic  expression; 
(2)  the  founding  of  a  serviceable  orchestra  based  on  bowed  instnmients;  (3)  diversity  of  style 
bet\veen  vocal  and  instrumental  composition. 

(i)  In  writing  for  the  stage,  he  aimed  at  an  intensification  of  dramatic  effects,  variety  in  tone- 
color,  a  freer  accompaniment,  and  relief  from  the  monotony  of  recitative  by  the  employment  of  a 
primitive  arioso  form.  The  fruits  of  these  dramatic  efforts  were  reaped  by  Carissimi  in  Italy, 
Schiitz  in  Germany,  Lulli  in  France. 

(2)  The  founding  of  a  serviceable  orchestra  was  the  result  of  his  expressive  and  dramatic 
instinct  fostered  by  the  attempts  of  the  Florentine  experimentalists,  —  orchestral  music  and  the 
drama  being,  moreover,  at  that  time  practically  inseparable.  His  orchestration  emphasized  the 
value  of  strings,  readjusted  the  balance  of  the  wind,  and  suggested  contrasted  choirs  of  instruments. 

(3)  Diversity  of  style  between  vocal  and  instrumental  music  pointed  the  way  to  independent 
orchestral  composition. 

It  was  not  the  greatest  of  his  successors  that  directly  furthered  the  cause  of  orchestration. 
Carissimi  in  oratorio,  Lulli  in  opera,  only  incidentally  enriched  instrumental  accompaniment  as  a 
means  to  an  end.  Of  greater  stability  were  the  orchestral  efforts  of  the  secondary  composers  of 
this  era,  of  whom  Cavalli,  Legrenzi,  Corelli  are  the  most  important.  Cavalli  established  the 
precedent  of  three-part  string  writing,  Legrenzi  of  equilibrium  and  a  fairly  adequate  supply  of 
strings,  whereas  their  superior,  Corelli,  by  developing  violin  technique,  made  possible  a  style  of 
writing  that  ultimately  matured  into  the  classic  sonata.  Further  originality  was  displayed  in  the 
chamber  music  of  Steffani  and  Clarl,  in  the  concerto  grosso  of  Torelli,  in  the  combined  harmonic 
and  rhythmic  effects  of  Vivaldi. 

In  direct  lineage  from  Monteverde,  Scarlatti  stands  as  the  second  great  orchestral  innovator. 
His  three  principal  achievements  were:  —  (i)  Balance  of  tone  in  the  strings  by  the  judicious  distribu- 
tion of  the  four  notes  of  a  chord;  (2)  numerical  suppression  of  overpowering  wind-instruments, 
and  a  logical  usage  of  the  same  in  pairs;  (3)  enlargement  of  the  exterior  and  thematic  develop- 
ment of  the  interior  construction  of  his  overtures.  Incidentally,  through  readjustment  of  dynamic 
force,  the  viola  gained  individuality,  and  the  strings  were  enabled  to  stand  out  in  rehef  against 
the  wind. 

The  genera]  tendency  of  the  era  was  one  of  universal  musical  progress  in  specialized  instru- 
mental writing.  Homogeneity  yielded  to  systematic  harmonic  progressions  and  well  defined  rhythm. 
Upon  this  basis,  a  unification  of  the  dance  movement,  polyphony,  and  thematic  treatment  was 
effected  in  the  following  century. 


PART    II.  — THE    CLASSIC    ERA. 

CHAPTER   V. 

BACH,  HANDEL,  AND  THEIR  CONTEMPORARIES. 

An  attempt  to  portray  in  a  felicitous  maimer  the  progress  of  orchestration 
during  the  classic  era  is  apt  to  carry  one  between  Scylla  and  Charybdis.  On  the 
one  hand  lies  the  temptation  to  enlarge  upon  the  biography  and  extraneous 
achievements  of  the  great  masters,  on  the  other,  the  danger  of  superficiality. 
Minuteness  of  detail  as  aimed  at  in  the  previous  chapter  when  the  beginnings  of 
orchestration  rested  in  the  hands  of  a  comparatively  small  number  of  men  is  here 
incompatible,  in  view  of  the  desire  for  conciseness.  Moreover,  extended  panegyrics 
would  of  necessity  consist  of  but  a  flatulent  plagiarism  upon  the  voluminous  and 
admirably  written  works  already  in  existence.  The  safe  course  to  pursue  is  there- 
fore to  survey  the  era  as  a  whole  in  its  relation  to  the  orchestra,  merely  touching 
upon  a  very  few  of  the  distinctive  characteristics  peculiar  to  the  most  celebrated 
exponents. 

Naturally  one  turns  to  that  unbroken  chain  of  Teutonic  peers,  beside  whom 
all  contemporary  efforts  were  puny.  Of  these  six,  —  Bach,  Handel,  Gluck, 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  it  might  be  said  that  only  the  last  three  were  direct 
evolutionists  of  the  symphonic  orchestra;  for  Gluck  was  absorbed  in  exploring 
the  dramatic  characteristics  of  instrumentation,  and  as  to  Bach  and  Handel,  in 
spite  of  their  titanic  contributions  to  music  itself,  neither  of  them  can  be  regarded 
as  an  orchestral  innovator,  though  this  statement  savors  of  heresy.  ^^^ 

(')  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  "  heresy  "  of  the  present  writer  is  chargeable  only  when  con- 
sideration of  Bach's  music  comes  before  or  takes  the  place  of  what  Bach  did  in  the  development  of  orches- 
tration, which  is  the  first  consideration  of  this  book.  Of  course,  it  is  beyond  question  that  in  his  instru- 
mentation as  distinct  from  orchestration,  Bach  added  to  the  possibilities  of  the  instruments  existing  at 
that  time,  —  notably  as  shown  by  the  obbligato  wind  parts,  the  gamba  and  'cello  solos,  etc.,  in  the 
Masses,  the  Passions  and  the  Church  Cantatas.  These  prove  a  much  larger  appreciation  of  orchestral 
color  than  was  known  in  music  for  three-quarters  of  a  century  after  him.  Nevertheless  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  for  many  years  Bach's  music  obtained  for  itself  only  restricted  recognition,  which 
therefore  justifies  the  above  made  statement  that  Bach  was  not  a  direct  evolutionist  of  the  symphonic 
orchestra. 


a8 


BACH,  HANDEL,  AND   THEIR  CONTEMPORARIES  29 

I. 

Bach  (1685-1750),  comparatively  a  recluse,  was  but  little  known  to  his 
contemporaries.  His  mode  of  life,  however,  was  only  partially  responsible  for 
this  neglect,  for  the  fact  that  a  German  imitation  of  NeapoHtan  methods  was  in 
predominance  at  that  time,  is  of  especial  significance.  Thus  Haydn  and  Mozart, 
who  might  have  reaped  incalculable  benefit  from  his  experience,  were  unfamiliar 
with  the  greater  portion  of  his  works.  This  fact  alone  is  sufficient  to  disconnect 
his  name  from  the  direct  lineal  chain  of  orchestral  evolution.  However,  in  view 
of  the  stupendous  posterior  influence  his  music  was  destined  to  wield,  one  cannot 
thus  summarily  pass  over  his  contributions  to  orchestration. 

Tersely  stated,  the  ideal  of  this  polyphonic  giant  revealed  itself  in  subtle 
expression  as  concealed  in  his  filigree  of  mercurial  counterpoint,  in  the  portrayal 
of  inner  feeling,  and  in  profound  religious  fervor.  A  Teuton  to  the  core,  he  stands 
as  the  symboUc  exponent  of  organ  and  Protestant  Church  music.  His  arias  are 
imbued  with  dramatic  intensity  and  lyric  pathos,  and  if  at  times  portions  of  them 
seem  archaic,  one  must  remember  that  his  art  had  assimilated  the  earlier  church 
style  and  was  but  the  corollary  of  it.  His  Passion  Music  not  only  still  exists,  but 
retains  its  full  vitality.  His  church  style  is  that  of  the  organ,  and  the  organ  was 
for  him  the  intermediary  to  orchestration. 

Although  Bach's  instrumentation  was  by  no  means  equal  to  the  substance 
of  his  wonderful  conceptions  intended  for  orchestration,  he  did  not  neglect  to 
study  the  prevalent  Italian  style  of  scoring,  and  was,  to  say  the  least,  a  progressive 
orchestrator,  even  if  not  an  innovator.  In  his  great  organ  works,  the  employment 
of  chromatic  and  enharmonic  modulation,  the  perfection  of  the  fugue,  the  develop- 
ment of  earlier  strict  forms  eventually  caused  vocal  music  to  yield  precedence  to 
instrumental.  And  Bach  transplanted  this  polj'phonic  style  into  the  orchestra 
with  the  result  that  the  treatment  of  each  individual  instrument  was  distinctly 
melodic.  Now  this  interwoven  texture  of  austere  poh'phony,  though  resulting 
in  a  complete  negation  of  analyzed  tone-color,  contained  the  essence  of  effective 
orchestral  solo  writing,  as  typified  in  his  concerti  grossi.  Bach  frequently  employed 
the  organ  as  the  centre  of  his  orchestra,  though  the  instrument  was  never  aggres- 
sive. Around  it  were  clustered  differentiated  groups  of  the  usual  variety,  whose 
mission  it  was  to  add  specific  unities  of  color  rather  than  volume  of  sound. 

But  when  Bach  had  occasion  to  introduce  episodes  of  simplicity  by  way  of 
contrast  to  his  usual  polyphony,  his  scoring  for  wood-wind  was  not  so  felicitous, 
and  in  loud  passages,  even  w^hen  adequately  represented,  they  were  prone  to  be 
eclipsed  by  the  strings.  It  is  true  that  he  was  frequently  hampered  by  a  paucity 
of  instrumentalists,  but  subsequent  renditions  of  his  orchestral  works  tend  to 


30  THE    EVOLUTION   OF   MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

prove  that  he  failed  to  extract  the  best  results  from  the  wind.  In  uniting  choral 
writing  with  the  organ,  Bach  must  evidently  have  been  aware  of  the  acoustic 
phenomenon  that  a  literal  redoubling  of  vocal  and  organ  parts  results  in  the  com- 
plete absorption  of  the  latter.  For  in  his  choral  masterpieces,  where  the  organ 
and  orchestra  are  simultaneously  used,  we  find,  as  a  m.eans  of  insuring  contrast, 
passages  wherein  entire  chords  in  the  orchestra  are  employed  as  passing  notes 
against  held  chords  in  the  chorus  and  organ. 

Bach's  orchestration,  therefore,  stands  for  polyphony;  melodic  treatment  in 
the  voice-leading  of  each  and  every  part  both  inner  and  outer;  contrasted  choirs 
of  affiliated  instruments  for  giving  variety  to  the  various  sequent  movements  in 
relation  to  each  other,  rather  than  for  episodic  contrast  or  variety  in  the  separate 
movements  by  themselves. 

A  striking  contrast  to  Bach's  secluded  and  uneventful  career  is  to  be  found  in 
that  of  his  illustrious  contemporary. 

II. 

Handel  (1685-1759),  the  man  of  the  world,  represents  the  realistic,  and 
the  aesthetics  of  melodic  form.  As  suzerain  of  oratorio,  he  handled  the  orchestra 
primarily  as  subsidiary  to  the  voices.  Unlike  Bach,  his  influence  upon  organ  and 
clavier  music  was  small.  And  the  value  of  his  forty  insipid  Italian  operas  lies 
only  in  the  experience  it  gave  him  in  manipulation  of  vocal  forces,  and  the  benefits 
derived  from  keeping  in  touch  with  a  cosmopolitan  public.  His  oratorios  are 
the  composite  of  the  orthodox  style  of  the  church,  the  traits  of  the  Neapolitan 
School  deprived  of  their  meretricious  tendencies,  and  a  precocious  expressive  and 
dramatic  instinct,  the  birthright  of  his  own  genius.  Ultimately  was  added  to 
this  composite  the  inspiration  offered  by  the  English  anthem  and  the  talent  of 
Purcell.  Indeed,  although  the  centripetal  ideal  that  guided  him  was  spontaneous 
and  original,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  in  the  setting  of  his  brilliants  is  to  be 
found  an  extraneous  aggrandizement,  resulting,  not  from  eclecticism,  but  from 
plagiarism.  Thus  unvarnished  phrases  of  CorelU  and  Alessandro  Scarlatti  were 
boldly  transfused  into  the  works  of  Handel  when  his  own  Muse  failed  him.  This 
Italian  influence  betrays  itself  in  the  comparative  simplicity  of  his  modulations, 
and  in  his  but  moderate  use  of  striking  dissonances.  The  skeleton  of  his  har- 
monic structures  was  reared  on  a  simpler  basis  than  Bach's;  on  the  other  hand, 
the  massed  effects  of  his  choral  polyphony  have  never  been  surpassed. 

His  instrumental  forms  were  likewise  ItaUan,  and  his  orchestration,  though 
masterly,  was  not  so  conspicuously  original  as  that  of  his  immediate  great  succes- 
sors. Strings  as  the  nuclei  were  supported  by  a  large  number  of  reeds.  In  orches- 
tras which  included  twenty-five  strings,  frequently  no  less  than  five  oboes  and 


BACH,  HANDEL,  AND   THEIR  CONTEMPORARIES  31 

five  bassoons  would  be  employed.  Even  our  modem  mighty  aggregation  of 
from  fifty  to  sixty  strings  would  hardly  bear  the  adjunct  of  ten  reeds,  —  indeed, 
three  oboes,  one  English  horn,  three  bassoons,  one  contra-bassoon  (eight  in  ail) 
would  represent  the  maximum  if  tonal  equilibrium  were  to  be  preserved.  How- 
ever, two  extenuating  circumstances  for  this  Handelian  custom  should  not  be 
overlooked.  His  method  of  writing  for  the  wood  did  not  embody  those  charac- 
teristics subsequently  discovered  by  Haydn  and  Mozart;  again,  the  instruments 
themselves  lacked  power.  The  criterion  of  Handel's  orchestration  rests  almost 
exclusively  in  his  oratorios.  Here  the  mission  of  instrumental  accompaniment 
was  to  support,  strengthen,  intertwine;  for  Handel  was  in  quest  of  solidity,  sonor- 
ity, vitality,  —  terms  which  in  this  connection  might  be  considered  the  synonym 
for  the  above  three. 

His  usual  method  for  full  scoring  was  to  double  the  violin  parts  with  oboes, 
and  the  basses  with  bassoons.  Clarinets  had  as  yet  no  status;  flutes  added  orna- 
mentation; the  brass  was  fully  represented  in  logical  proportion,  though  it  was 
then  the  custom  to  write  high  trumpet  parts.  Next  to  the  violins,  the  oboe  was 
Handel's  as  well  as  Bach's  favorite  solo  instrument.  The  organ  played  an 
important  role  in  his  oratorios,  and  he  employed  the  harp  freely  for  historic  repre- 
sentations. Together  with  Bach,  he  was  practically  the  last  to  make  use  of  the 
theorbos.  At  least  passing  reference  is  due  to  his  trios,  which  constitute  so 
important  a  contribution  to  the  literature  of  chamber  music.  His  contrapuntal 
overtures  and  interludes,  where  the  wood-wind  are  allowed  greater  freedom,  dis- 
play considerable  variety.  Finally,  at  this  period  the  harpsichord  was  fortunately 
losing  its  fallacious  value  as  a  musical  component  of  the  orchestra,  being  retained 
rather  as  a  means  for  conducting. 

But  as  already  stated,  Handel  learned  to  regard  the  orchestra  not  as  an  unen- 
thralled  entity,  but  rather  as  the  chief  ally  of  oratorio,  for  which  the  comer  stone 
was  Italian  melody,  the  foundations  comparatively  simple  harmonic  progressions, 
and  the  superstmcture  the  human  voice,  surrounded  by  an  orchestral  trellis.  And 
the  resultant  was  a  massive  tonal  edifice. 


The  Contemporaries  of  Bach  and  Handel. 

Before  proceeding  to  a  survey  of  Gluck's  revolutionary  accomplishments, 
it  would  seem  in  place  to  analyze  the  artistic  progress  of  the  lesser  lights  of  this 
period.  And  since  the  crisis  of  Gluck's  life  was  not  reached  until  a  century  after 
the  birth  of  those  two  giants,  Bach  and  Handel,  even  though  they  were  his  direct 
predecessors  and  eventual  contemporaries,  chronological  dates  must  needs  give 
place  to  the  logic  of  evolution. 


32  THE    EVOLUTION    OF   MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 


m. 

Italy.  In  the  previous  chapter,  the  progress  of  orchestration  in  relation  to 
its  beneficent  guardian,  the  drama,  was  traced  from  the  improvements  initiated 
by  Monteverde  through  those  of  Scarlatti.  These  new  doctrines  were,  of  course, 
assiduously  seized  upon  by  the  latter's  contemporaries  and  immediate  successors. 
But  indeed  it  was  not  until  the  advent  of  Spontini  as  late  as  the  first  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  that  Italian  orchestration  was  again  represented  by  an  exponent 
of  more  than  secondary  importance,  taking  into  consideration  the  achievements  of 
Rameau  in  France,  not  to  mention  the  great  German  masters.  For  Pergolesi 
excelled  particularly  in  string  writing,  whereas  Cherubini's  scoring  shows  German 
influence  rather  than  Italian.  Nevertheless,  Neapolitan  propagandism  exerted 
world-wide  influence,  and  was  directly  fostered  by  such  men  as  Buononcini, 
Durante,  Porpora,  Leo,  Logroscino,  all  of  whom  were  bom  in  the  last  quarter  of 
the  seventeenth  century;  to  the  same  chronological  period  belongs  also  Lotti 
(1667),  a  worthy  representative  of  the  Venetian  School,  who,  although  primarily 
a  composer  of  sacred  music  of  marked  individuality,  wrote  a  number  of  operas 
for  Venice  as  well  as  several  for  Dresden  and  Vienna.  Having  resided  for  two 
years  in  Dresden,  he  aided  the  diffusion  throughout  Germany  of  operatic  and 
orchestral  principles  that  were  conspicuously  Italian  even  if  not  specifically  those 
of  Naples.  Like  him.  Durante  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  sacred 
writing.  Leo,  though  producing  many  dramatic  works  as  well  as  oratorios  and 
chamber  music,  aided  the  advance  of  Italian  art  more  as  the  teacher  of  Jomelli 
and  Piccini  than  by  his  creations.  Both  G.  Buononcini  and  the  singing  teacher, 
Porpora,  were  through  the  irony  of  fate  led  to  aid  artistic  evolution  by  negative 
means,  so  to  speak,  since  the  trend  of  their  ambitions  brought  them  face  to  face 
with  the  genius  of  Handel,  upon  whom  their  machinations  acted  but  as  a  stimulus. 
For,  as  will  be  remembered,  Buononcini's  defeat  in  London  was  followed  fifteen 
years  later  by  a  second  unsuccessful  rivalry  instigated  by  Porpora's  faction.  Logro- 
scino is  to  be  remembered  for  his  development  of  opera-buffa  and  of  the  Finale 
as  subsequently  applied  by  Piccini.  But  it  is  clearly  evident  that  none  of  these 
representative  Italian  composers  contributed  materially  to  orchestration  with  the 
exception  that  their  instrumental  accompaniments  acquired  greater  freedom. 

The  brief  career  of  Pergolesi  (i  710-1736)  was  consummated  during  the 
interim  dating  approximately  from  Gluck's  birth  to  Haydn's.  His  fame  is  con- 
fined not  alone  to  his  sacred  works,  such  as  the  Stabat  Mater,  but  to  his  dramatic 
productions  as  well,  of  which  the  finest  example  is,  of  course,  "La  serva  padrona," 
of  opera-buffa  propinquities.  His  proclivity  for  employing  an  orchestra  of  strings 
alone,  as  exemplified  in  the  above  mentioned  representative  works,  was  fortunate 


BACH,  HANDEL,  AND  THEIR  CONTEMPORARIES  ^^ 

in  that  thereby  he  was  able  to  concentrate  his  thoughts  upon  finish  and  detail, 
such  as  served  as  a  valuable  model  for  the  period  in  which  he  was  living,  when 
string  writing  was  as  yet  at  an  immature  stage. 

IV. 

Germany.  In  Germany  itself  Italian  influences  predominated,  and  inter- 
est was  centered  chiefly  upon  the  opera,  in  connection  with  which  Scarlatti's 
tenets  of  writing  for  the  orchestra  were  diligently  copied.  German  dramatic 
activity  paved  the  way  to  the  establishment  in  1678  of  a  permanent  opera  house 
in  Hamburg,  which  enjoyed  uninterrupted  existence  for  sixty  years.  Most  promi- 
nent among  the  composers  for  and  directors  of  this  enterprise  were  Theile  (1646), 
Keiser  (1674),  Mattheson  (1681),  and  Telemann  (likewise  1681).  Of  these, 
Keiser  accrued  the  greatest  temporary  popularity  by  reason  of  his  prolific  and 
sensational  though  shallow  versatility.  His  orchestration,  which  was  of  the  lightest 
kind,  included  various  alternating  groups  of  instruments.  Fetis  states  that  Keiser 
employed  in  his  opera  "Fredegonde"  sometimes  the  strings  alone,  or  the  clavi- 
chord together  with  plucked  stringed  instruments  and  a  bass.  Again,  the  voice 
was  accompanied  by  a  single  violin,  an  oboe  and  a  bass,  oboes  alone,  or  a  flute 
and  viols.  These  combinations  present  nothing  new;  they  were  but  in  accordance 
with  the  customs  of  the  times.  Telemann  also  was  possessed  of  a  reputation 
sufficient  to  overshadow  in  his  day  that  of  Bach.  Though  the  importance  of 
his  activity  has  since  been  reduced  to  insignificance,  credit  is  at  least  due  to  him, 
not  alone  for  his  dramatic  writings,  but  also  for  his  contribution  to  concert  and 
chamber  music,  which  frequently  revealed  strong  German  tendencies,  all  too  rare 
in  the  midst  of  Neapolitan  sovereignty.  So-called  symphonies,  overtures,  con- 
certos, quartets  and  the  like  are  included  in  Telemann's  exhaustless  list  of  com- 
positions, and  in  view  of  his  intimacy  with  Bach,  these  works  must  have  wielded 
at  least  transitory  influence  upon  the  experimental  stage  of  that  master's  instru- 
mentation and  orchestral  form.  Handel  likewise  for  three  years  devoted  his  ener- 
gies to  writing  operas  for  the  Hamburg  stage;  but  this  was  in  his  youthful  days, 
and,  as  has  been  already  intimated,  these  attempts  were  but  puerile  and  can  have 
no  possible  bearing  upon  the  art  of  orchestration. 

Emanuel  Bach  (17 14-1788)  was  also  unquestionably  attracted  by  the  doc- 
trines of  this  histrionic  circle,  although  he  was  never  directly  associated  with  it. 
(Incidentally,  therefore,  it  should  be  noted  that  he  was  not  the  successor  of  Tele- 
mann as  director  in  operatic  lines,  a  statement  erroneously  set  forth  by  one  histo- 
rian of  repute;  he  did  succeed  him  as  church  musical  director  but  not  until  later 
in  life.  In  support  of  this  correction  it  is  but  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  in  1738,  the  very  year  in  which  the  degeneracy  of  the  Hamburg  operatic 


34 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 


experiments  culminated  in  the  relinquishment  of  the  enterprise,  Emanuel  Bach, 
being  but  twenty-four  years  old,  went  to  Berlin,  where  two  years  later  he  became 
chamber  cembalist  to  Frederick  the  Great.)  The  results  of  his  efforts  are  of 
value  to  posterity  in  that  he  was  instrumental  in  causing  musical  composition  to 
be  established  on  a  more  decidedly  harmonic  rather  than  contrapuntal  basis. 
For  although  he  honestly  endeavored  to  fathom  the  profundity  of  his  illustrious 
father,  the  subtle  influence  of  his  courtly  surroundings  and  the  effervescent  super- 
ficiality of  Neapolitanism  could  not  but  have  its  effect  upon  his  art.  Again,  his 
early  training  was  such  as  to  foster  a  regard  for  what  has  been  called  the  "gallant" 
style,  and,  as  Dr.  Riemann  states  it:  "to  this  very  tendency  he  owes  his  greatness, 
for  by  it  he  became  the  father  of  modem  instrumental  music,  the  precursor  of 
Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven  in  the  department  of  the  sonata,  symphony,  etc., 
which  he  clothed  in  more  pleasing  modem  dress;"  and  thus  "the  son  of  the  last 
master  of  the  old  school  became  the  founder  of  the  new  school." 

Passing  reference  is  due  to  three  further  German  contemporaries  of  Handel 
who  were  slaves  to  Italian  principles.  These  were  Hasse  (1699),  Graun  (1701), 
Naumann  (1741).  After  the  downfall  of  the  Hamburg  stage,  two  distinct  efforts 
were  made  to  establish  Italian  opera  at  Dresden.  Now  the  Dresden  orchestra 
is  over  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  old,  and  the  interest  attached  to  the  name 
of  Hasse  is  due  to  his  prominent  connection  with  that  organization  and  the  con- 
stitution of  the  same  under  his  management.  This  band  had  been  noted  for  its 
excellence  already  in  the  earlier  stages  of  its  existence,  and  even  at  the  time  of 
Monteverde  it  enrolled  no  less  than  thirteen  strings  and  ninety-three  instruments 
of  wood,  brass,  and  percussion.  These  dimensions  were  of  gigantic  proportions 
for  those  days,  indeed,  they  compare  favorably  with  the  present  size  of  the  Dresden 
orchestra.  That  of  Hasse  was  but  half  as  large,  but  the  distribution  of  parts  was, 
of  course,  infinitely  superior,  and  an  orchestra  of  even  fifty  instruments,  of  which 
only  half  were  strings,  could  readily  have  overpowered  singers  of  Italian  opera, 
had  it  not  been  for  the  subservience  of  the  accompaniment  to  "il  bel  canto,"  the 
meagre  quality  of  tone  of  the  wood-wind,  and  the  "thin"  scoring  then  in  vogue. 
It  consisted  of  twenty-five  strings  in  judicious  apportionment,  two  flutes,  five  oboes, 
five  bassoons,  two  horns,  besides  trumpets,  trombones,  kettle-drums  and  two 
clavichords.  The  prominence  of  reed  quality  and  the  incorporation  of  two  clavi- 
chords, from  one  of  which  Hasse  conducted,  was  in  accord  with  the  usages  which 
Handel  accepted.  Hasse  stands  as  the  most  successful  native  exponent  of  extra- 
neous ideas,  and,  like  his  method  of  conducting  which  originated  in  Italy,  his 
harmonic  progressions  as  well  as  his  instrumentation  are  of  the  simplest  kind  and 
disclose  the  same  influence. 

Graun  achieved  renown  first  as  an  opera  singer,  next  as  an  opera  composer; 
but  of  more  enduring  worth  are  his  sacred  compxDsitions.     Nevertheless  he  and 


BACH,  HANDEL,  AND   THEIR  CONTEMPORARIES  35 

Hasse  were  for  a  time  the  only  maestri  who  wrote  for  the  Berlin  Opera,  and  the 
orchestral  scores  of  Graun  are  considered  by  some  to  suggest  a  transition  from 
the  earlier  symphonies  to  those  of  Haydn.  One  of  his  cantatas  is  scored  for  three 
flutes,  three  oboes,  two  violins,  one  viola,  a  bassoon,  and  a  chorus  in  six  parts. 
To  this  series  of  composers  belongs  properly  the  name  of  Naumann,  even  though 
he  was  bom  in  the  following  generation ;  he  displayed  a  fatal  facility  in  express- 
ing himself  in  conventional  formulas,  and  his  career  was  interrupted  only  by  the 
ascendency  of  Giuck  and  Mozart. 

V. 

France.  French  musical  art  owes  the  stability  of  her  early  dramatic  growth 
to  three  eminent  composers:  Lulli,  Rameau,  Gluck;  and  the  first  and  the  last  of 
these  were  foreigners.  Moreover  into  their  hands  was  entrusted  the  moulding 
of  French  orchestration,  for  French  orchestral  music  was  not  destined  to  disengage 
itself  from  bondage  to  the  drama  and  assert  itself  as  a  clearly  defined  indigenous 
product  until  the  nineteenth  centur)'.  A  sharp  line  of  demarcation  must  be 
drawn  between  each  respective  career  of  these  three  pillars  of  the  nascent  stage. 
For  Lulli  had  appropriated  to  himself  all  the  glory  attendant  upon  the  Royal 
Opera,  not  alone  as  the  director  but  as  composer  as  well.  Not  until  after  his 
death  did  it  become  possible  for  others  to  reap  the  benefits  of  experience  in  hearing 
their  own  works  produced,  in  consequence  of  which,  latent  talent  had  had  no 
chance  to  expand.  And  the  interim  between  Lulli  and  Rameau  is  signalized  as 
a  period  of  reaction  during  which  the  efforts  of  even  the  most  prominent  writers 
were  but  a  pale  reflection  of  those  of  their  illustrious  master. 

Three  composers,  bom  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  namely 
Campra,  Destouches,  Mouret,  were  the  immediate  successors  of  Lulli,  and  dedi- 
cated their  services,  such  as  they  were,  to  the  conservation  of  his  ideals.  Of  these 
three  men,  Campra  is  popularly  called  the  link  between  Lulli  and  Rameau.  Cam- 
pra possessed  genuinely  dramatic  instincts,  exercised  his  talents  along  sacred  lines 
as  well  as  secular,  and  revealed  certain  traits  of  independence  and  originality  in 
that  he  dared  to  depart  from  Lulli's  somewhat  austere  style  by  emphasizing  the 
necessity  for  augmenting  rhythmic  effects,  which  was  distinctly  beneficial  in  the 
development  of  orchestration.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  he  was  the  first  French- 
man to  employ  the  cor  de  chasse  in  opera,  although  Lulli  introduced  it  into  some 
of  his  ballets.  The  contributions  of  Destouches  were  of  small  intrinsic  value 
other  than  the  fact  that  the  chivalrous  surroundings  of  his  earlier  career  as  an 
officer  had  nurtured  his  natural  temperament  for  the  graceful  and  refined.  And 
so  with  this  aesthetic  touch  of  a  composer  otherwise  lacking  in  musical  education, 
he  added  his  mite  to  the  development  of  daintiness  in  instrumentation,  such  as 
the  use  of  two  piccolo  flutes  in  thirds  in  one  of  his  ballets,  and  other  minor  though 


36  THE    EVOLUTION    OF   MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

interesting  details.  Of  Mouret's  operas  little  can  be  said;  but  he  deserves  honor- 
able mention  for  his  labors  as  a  conductor  of  the  "Concerts  spirituels,"  which, 
as  the  name  implies,  had  been  founded  in  1725  to  occupy  the  interregna  whenever 
the  opera  houses  were  closed  for  religious  reasons.  Consequently,  his  name  is 
rightfully  connected  with  the  evolution  of  the  concert  orchestra,  for  the  "Concerts 
spirituels"  exercised  a  discriminating  influence  at  a  critical  time  in  French  musical 
history,  especially  since  subsequently,  about  the  date  of  Beethoven's  birth,  it  was 
reorganized  by  Gossec,  with  the  result  that  it  sprang  into  prominence  equal  to 
that  of  some  of  the  foremost  orchestras  of  Europe. 

With  the  advent  of  Rameau  (1683-1764),  who  was  bom  two  years  before 
Bach,  the  Opera  was  again  lifted  out  of  the  lethargy  into  which  it  had  fallen. 
Rameau,  first  to  offer  to  the  world  a  theoretical  explanation  of  harmonic  relation- 
ship built  upon  a  logically  scientific  basis,  was  exactly  fifty  years  old  when  he 
made  his  ddbut  as  an  operatic  writer,  indeed,  he  did  not  reach  the  summit  of  his 
success  until  about  the  time  of  Mozart's  birth.  And  since  Gluck's  Parisian  career 
dates  from  the  decade  in  which  Beethoven  was  bom,  the  chronological  relationship 
in  the  labors  of  Rameau  and  Gluck  can  the  more  readily  be  compared.  Rameau's 
handling  of  dramatic  resources  was  superior  to  that  of  Lulli,  in  fact,  his  methods 
were  of  sufficient  merit  to  be  subsequently  absorbed  by  Gluck  himself.  The 
three  cardinal  points  of  departure  from  traditional  usage  that  have  caused  the 
name  of  Rameau,  first  of  the  genuinely  French  masters,  to  be  so  highly  respected 
are  his  daring  harmonic  innovations,  the  important  r61e  assigned  by  him  to  the 
dramatic  chorus,  and  what  is  more,  the  importance  attached  to  orchestral  accom- 
paniment, together  with  increased  independence  and  prominence  for  the  orchestra 
itself,  as  well  as  enriched  instrumentation  in  detail.  Since  most  of  his  operas 
are  published  in  condensed  form,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  ritornelli,  con- 
tain but  the  vocal,  violin,  and  bass  parts,  facilities  for  a  satisfactory  examination 
of  his  instrumentation  are  usually  lacking.  This  is  a  matter  for  regret,  since 
many  of  his  detached  instrumental  numbers  are  veritable  little  gems  of  descriptive 
writing  in  the  miniature,  not  dissimilar  in  style  to  those  written  by  his  contem- 
porary, Franfois  Couperin,  who  was  mentioned  in  the  previous  chapter  as  one  of 
the  three  earliest  exponents  of  characteristic  clavier  music. 

Though  Rameau  made  but  few  changes  in  the  constituency  of  the  orchestra, 
there  was  assigned  to  each  instmment  an  individual  and  appropriate  role,  and  the 
tone-colors  cross  and  intermingle.  He  extended  the  range  of  the  violins,  aided 
the  independency  of  accompaniment  by  the  frequent  use  of  arpeggios  in  the 
strings,  and  was  the  first  to  use  pizzicato  chord  effects  in  the  entire  body  of  strings 
at  once.  Although  he  did  not  employ  the  harp,  he  imitated  its  characteristics 
by  means  of  pizzicati  strings.  Two  homs  and  even  two  clarinets  are  frequently 
to  be  found  in  his  scores,  and  lighter  touches,  such  as  the  accompaniment  of  the 


BACH,  HANDEL,  AND   THEIR  CONTEMPORARIES  37 

voice  by  two  flutes  and  a  violin,  or  three  oboes  and  a  bassoon,  are  also  to  be  met 
with. 

As  has  been  already  intimated,  the  triumphs  of  Rameau  were  followed  by  a 
second  interim  that  lasted  for  nearly  twenty  years.  But  in  the  case  of  this  second 
interim,  France  was  not  destined  to  remain  so  comparatively  unproductive  as 
during  the  first.  For  the  same  period  that  heralds  the  crowning  point  of  Rameau's 
fame  ushers  in  the  beginnings  of  French  comic  opera,  for  which  date  Mozart's 
birth  is  again  a  convenient  reminder.  As  a  result  of  partisanship  for  the  Italian 
"bouffons,"  the  philosopher,  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (1712-1778),  wrote  both 
the  words  and  music  of  a  little  French  pastoral  in  the  style  of  the  prevailing  Italian 
intermezzi,  and  thereby  excited  the  interest  more  especially  of  the  younger  com- 
posers. Duni,  Philidor,  and  Monsigny,  who  were  bom  in  approximately  the 
same  quarter  century  as  Rousseau,  were  particularly  happy  in  their  efforts  to 
evolve  from  this  germ  a  lighter  and  more  popular  style,  and  are  therefore  to  be 
regarded  as  the  founders  of  opera  comique,  which,  in  the  next  generation,  was  to 
be  moulded  into  plasmic  form  by  Gretry.  And  no  style  could  have  been  more 
beneficial  for  extricating  orchestral  writing  out  of  the  stiff  and  prosaic  confines 
within  which  serious  opera  was  prone  to  restrict  it.  On  the  other  hand,  Italian 
orchestration  was  leaning  more  and  more  toward  pernicious  conventionalism  and 
tawdry  superficiality.  Here  again  the  early  opera  comique  appeared  as  a  felicitous 
counterbalance,  and  infused  into  the  orchestra  that  sparkle  and  piquancy  for 
which  French  instrumentation  has  ever  since  been  famed.  True,  none  of  these 
minor  composers  contributed  signally  to  the  advancement  of  orchestration,  but 
each  helped  in  little  ways,  and  their  instrumentation  was  more  correct  and  finished 
than  that  of  their  prominent  successor,  Gretry.  Their  orchestras  were  still  some- 
what massive,  but  showed  progress  in  vigor  and  sonority,  variety  and  lightness 
of  instrumentation. 

And  so  when  Gluck  arrived  in  Paris  there  existed  already  four  distinct  schools 
for  orchestral  writing  —  the  rising  classic  purity  of  his  own  native  land;  the 
Neapolitan  traditions,  fast  deteriorating  into  triviality;  the  legacies  of  Lulli,  revivi- 
fied and  improved  upon  by  Rameau;  and  the  virginal  essays  at  phosphorescent 
scoring  in  lighter  vein. 

(Summary  on  page  68.) 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GLUCK  AND   HIS    CONTEMPORARIES. 

I. 

Gluck  (1714-1787),  the  third  of  the  great  drama  reformers,  and  prede- 
cessor of  Wagner  m  the  establishment  of  dramatic  continuity,  did  not  appear  as 
the  champion  of  revivified  Hellenic  ideals  until  advanced  in  years.  Though  he 
had  long  harbored  an  intense  antagonism  to  the  paltry  conventionalities  of  the 
existing  lyric  drama,  his  tenets  awoke  no  sympathetic  chord  in  his  native  land. 
And  thus  it  came  about  that  the  arena  of  LuUi's  scintillating  pageantry  witnessed 
the  rehabilitation  of  genuine,  legitimate,  and  unaffected  histrionic  art.  This  was 
attained  by  a  return  to  a  severe  and  truthful  mode  of  musical  declamation,  by 
clothing  the  several  stage  characters  with  distinctive  individuality,  and  by  instill- 
ing into  his  music-dramas  in  their  entirety,,  reflection,  simplicity,  sincerity,  pathos, 
nobility.  The  chorus  was  raised  to  importance,  the  function  of  accompaniment 
rendered  more  virile,  and  the  orchestra  was  made  to  enhance  the  dramatic  situa- 
tions. Three  defects  are  noticeable.  Gluck  made  no  attempt  to  break  down  the 
barriers  of  stereotyped  operatic  forms,  his  melody  is  at  times  stilted,  and  his  music 
is  guilty  of  frequent  grammatical  errors.  Despite  these  facts,  his  choruses  are 
worthy  examples  of  dramatic  effect,  and  the  formal  structure  of  his  overtures  is 
more  rounded  than  those  of  even  Bach  or  Handel.  But  it  cannot  be  said  that  his 
genius  was  conspicuously  original;  he  was  essentially  a  reformer,  not  an  innovator. 
For  as  Mr.  Edward  Dickinson  expresses  it  in  general  terms:  "Gluck's  success 
was  not  due  to  his  melodic  invention  or  mastery  of  musical  science,  for  in  neither 
of  these  particulars  can  he  be  ranked  among  the  greatest  composers.  His  ability 
consisted  rather  of  producing  great  effects  with  simple  means;  the  severe  grandeur 
of  his  style  was  especially  suited  to  the  antique  subjects  which  he  chose,  and  this 
style  was  in  conformity  to  the  peculiar  genius  of  Greek  tragedy." 

To  independent  orchestration  Gluck  contributed  but  little,  but,  considering 
the  age  in  which  he  lived,  none  have  excelled  him  as  an  interpreter,  by  means  of 
the  orchestra,  of  pathetic  expression,  or  in  the  use  of  appropriate  instrumentation, 
varied  and  rich  tone-coloring.  To  quote  from  Parry's  "The  Art  of  Music," 
page  220:  "Moreover,  the  expressive  qualities  of  his  admirable  recitatives  are 
very  much  enhanced  by  his  way  of  dealing  with  the  accompaniment.  He  neglected 
no  opportunity  to  make  use  of  the  qualities  of  his  orchestral  instruments  —  as 

38 


CLUCK  AND  HIS  CONTEMPORARIES  39 

far  as  in  him  lay  —  to  enforce  and  accentuate  the  situations,  and  even  to  intensify 
the  passing  moment  of  feeling  implied  by  the  dialogue.  Composers  were  success- 
fully developing  the  sense  of  the  functions  and  resources  of  instrumentation. 
Even  Gluck's  rival,  Piccini,  made  some  very  appropriate  effects  by  using  his  instru- 
ments consistently  with  the  spirit  of  the  situations.  But  Gluck  applied  himself 
to  the  matter  with  far  more  intensity,  and  far  more  genuine  perception  of  the 
characters  of  the  instruments.  Indeed  it  would  be  hardly  an  exaggeration  to 
say,  that  he  was  the  first  composer  in  the  world  who  had  any  genuine  understand- 
ing of  this  very  modem  phase  of  the  art.  Mozart  was  the  first  to  show  real  natural 
gift  and  genuine  feeling  for  beautiful  disposition  of  tone,  but  Gluck  anticipated 
modem  procedure  in  adapting  his  colors  exactly  to  the  mood  of  the  situation. 
A  good  deal  had  been  attempted  already  in  a  sort  of  half-hearted  and  formal  manner, 
but  he  was  the  first  to  seize  firmly  on  the  right  principles  and  to  carry  out  his  objects 
with  any  mastery  of  resources. "  On  the  other  hand,  "  his  orchestration  has  none 
of  the  roundness  or  balance  or  maturity  of  Mozart's.  It  is  unequal  and  uncertain, 
and  requires  humoring  in  performance  to  make  it  produce  the  effect  which  is 
intended. " 

Gluck  relied  to  an  excessive  degree  upon  the  string  band,  and  his  orchestral 
writing  lacked  that  balance  which  the  contemporary  and  sequent  classicists 
regarded  as  the  fundamental  requirement.  Notwithstanding,  his  instrumentation 
exhibits  many  original  insignia  that  are  worthy  of  record.  Thus  he  demonstrated 
the  dramatic  power  of  low-written  viola  parts,  made  varied  and  characteristic 
use  of  the  tremolo,  was  the  first  to  introduce  mutes  into  the  orchestra  in  his 
"Armide,"  and  caused  the  trombones  to  emerge  from  their  hitherto  menial  sub- 
servience, and  stand  forth  in  all  their  dignity  and  tragic  power  of  portraying  peace, 
sorrow,  fear,  religion,  majesty.  And  by  proving  the  superior  effectiveness  in 
employing  a  group  of  three  trombones,  he  established  a  precedent  that  has  been 
endorsed  by  all  subsequent  composers. 

But  it  must  be  confessed  that  in  turning  over  page  after  page  of  his  scores,  one 
discovers  the  fact  that  in  deploying  his  wood-wind  Gluck  usually  laid  but  modest 
demands  upon  them.  Their  duties  were  more  commonly  restricted  to  the  lending 
of  comparatively  simple  tone-color  for  heightening  dramatic  action,  or  for  relieving 
the  monotony  of  prolonged  use  of  strings  alone.  Of  weird  and  tragic  effect  is 
his  concentration  of  all  high  wood-wind  unisono.  But  many  of  his  other  orches- 
tral characteristics  bear  the  impress  of  conventionalism  then  in  vogue,  which 
soon  becomes  monotonous;  and  his  manner  of  writing  for  the  deeper  instruments 
causes  much  of  his  orchestration  to  sound  heav)^ 

All  things  considered,  the  same  must  be  said  of  Gluck  as  of  his  vancourier, 
LuUi,  and  of  the  great  oratorio  composers,  Carissimi  and  Handel  —  neither  he 
nor  they  were  attracted  by  the  kaleidoscopic  potentiality  of  the  orchestra  when 


40  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

isolated  from  its  kindred  rivals,  the  opera  and  the  oratorio.  And  although  his 
name  is  to  be  revered  for  having  opened  up  the  resources  of  the  orchestra,  the 
attention  he  bestowed  upon  it  was  but  a  reflection  of  the  greater  glories  that  he 
offered  up  to  the  shrine  of  dramatic  lustration. 


The  Contemporaries  of  Gluck. 


For  two  hundred  years  dramatic  writing  had  now  dominated  musical  art, 
therefore  orchestration  as  welL  The  best  fruits  of  these  two  centuries  of  experi- 
ments having  culminated  in  the  reforms  of  Gluck,  his  music  dramas,  with  their 
continuity  of  action  and  dignity  of  subject-matter,  were  to  be  surpassed  only  by 
Mozart's  splendid  attainments,  by  reason  of  the  latter's  perfect  melody,  pure  form 
and  admirably  adjusted  orchestration. 

A  final  glance  at  the  dramatic  situation  of  Europe  with  the  date  of  Beethoven's 
birth  as  a  consistently  convenient  landmark  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  compre- 
hend the  significance  of  Mozart's  operatic  constellation  as  it  appeared  on  the 
horizon.  For  the  decade  beginning  with  1770  was  replete  with  big  events,  pre- 
ordained, as  it  were,  to  do  homage  to  the  future  master  —  Beethoven.  Of  the 
generation  bom  between  1714  and  1756,  further  mention  has  yet  to  be  made  of 
the  Frenchman,  Gretry,  of  the  Germans,  J.  A.  Hiller  and  Dittersdorf,  and  of  the 
conservators  of  declming  Italian  dogmas,  Jomelli,  Piccini,  Sacchini,  Paesiello, 
Cimarosa,  Salieri. 

n. 

France.  After  the  defeat  of  the  kindly  Piccini,  —  who  deserves  more  credit 
than  is  usually  awarded  him,  not  alone  for  his  graceful  melody,  clear  and  sonorous 
orchestration,  but  especially  for  his  judicious  application  of  the  orchestral  instru- 
ments to  the  demands  of  a  situation,  —  the  stage  of  the  French  capital,  now  mono- 
polized by  foreign  composers,  patronized  for  a  brief  period  the  productions  of  the 
Neapolitan  Sacchini,  and  of  Salieri.  The  former  was  also  a  fair  composer  of 
chamber  music,  whereas  the  latter  is  signally  notorious  for  his  intrigues  against 
Mozart.  Both  of  them  were  pupils  of  Gluck,  and  their  instrumentation  was  but 
an  imitation  of  his.  But  meanwhile,  after  Gretry  (1741-1813)  had  fairly 
launched  his  graceful  conceptions,  the  public  soon  recognized  in  him  a  worthy 
successor  to  Rameau,  even  though  the  genre  of  his  offerings  was  of  a  different 
mould.  Interest  in  imported  art  waned,  and  the  career  of  the  second  great  French 
composer  began. 


GLUCK    AND    HIS    CONTEMPORARIES 


41 


Grdtry,  though  founding  a  permanent  and  powerful  national  school  that  was 
distinctly  the  opposite  of  tragedy,  was  an  ardent  disciple  of  Gluck's  doctrines, 
being  himself  even  more  of  a  radical  in  his  indifiference  for  actual  singing  as  a 
mode  of  dramatic  interpretation.  But  in  spite  of  his  sensitive  perception  not 
alone  for  truthful  interpretation,  but  as  well  for  melodic  design  and  novel  scenic 
effects,  his  comparative  neglect  of  the  orchestra  is  unique  in  the  annals  of  musi- 
cal history.  His  strings  were  generally  written  in  three  parts,  with  frequent  gaps 
between  the  bass  and  the  two  upper  voices.  His  harmonies  were  usually  too  thin, 
and  his  orchestration  as  a  whole  was  conventional  and  uninteresting.  Fortu- 
nately his  delicate  musical  thought  did  not  require  elaborate  instrumentation  as  a 
means  for  expression,  and  so  he  rarely  drew  upon  the  resources  of  the  orchestra 
for  more  than  was  absolutely  necessary  in  simple  accompaniment  to  the  voice. 
Gr^try  is  cited  as  having  declared  that  the  accompaniment  to  solo  singing  should 
be  as  the  pedestal  to  the  statue;  but  unfortunately  his  own  orchestral  accompani- 
ments do  not  conform  to  this  pretty  saying,  for  his  pedestals  were  feeble  and 
lacked  the  essentials  of  ornamentation.  And  although  Gretry  towers  above  his 
contemporaries  as  the  first  great  representative  of  opera  comique,  he  contributed 
practically  nothing  new  to  orchestration  other  than  the  introduction,  in  a  few 
isolated  cases,  of  some  unusual  instruments  of  percussion  and  other  minor  details 
of  instrumentation. 

III. 

Italy.  In  1770,  Jomelli,  who  for  fifteen  years  had  occupied  the  post  of 
Hofkapellmeister  in  Stuttgart,  had  just  returned  to  Italy,  where  he  found  Paesi- 
ello  in  high  favor,  and  Cimarosa  about  to  begin  his  operatic  career.  Both  Paesi- 
ello  and  Cimarosa  were  soon  to  pose  as  rivals  to  Piccini  as  well  as  to  each  other, 
but  of  the  two,  Paesiello  was  possessed  of  more  scholarly  attributes  which  found 
outlet  in  numerous  independent  instrumental  works,  including  twelve  symphonies 
and  six  quartets,  whereas  Cimarosa  displayed  simpler  though  more  spontaneous 
fertility,  and  his  works  are  better  known  to  posterity  with  whom  he  ranks  as  one  of 
the  greatest  Italian  composers  of  his  day.  Nevertheless,  the  instrumentation  of 
both  Paesiello  and  Cimarosa  was  weak  and  non-progressive.  The  most  promi- 
nent contemporary  exponent  of  chamber  music  was  Boccherini,  who  is  credited 
with  the  authorship  of  no  less  than  three  hundred  and  sixty  trios,  quartets,  quin- 
tets and  the  like,  besides  twenty  symphonies.  In  antithesis  to  the  transportation 
into  Germany  of  exotic  ideas,  Jomelli  and  other  Italians  living  in  Germany  showed 
the  influence  of  their  new  surroundings  by  improved  orchestration,  though 
unfortunately  this  had  but  little  immediate  effect  on  their  compatriots  at  home. 
For  the  Italians  still  held  tenaciously  to  their  traditions,  and  handled  the  orchestra 


42  THE   EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

principally  as  a  means  of  support  for  and  contrast  to  the  human  voice.  Fearful 
lest  the  singer  should  be  overpowered,  they  were  overcautious;  as  a  result,  their 
scoring  was  thin,  and  decidedly  weak  in  the  bass.  Jomelli's  efforts  are  therefore 
especially  praiseworthy.  In  his  operas,  the  orchestra  acquired  greater  import- 
ance, and,  like  Sammartini,  he  awakened  also  a  keener  interest  for  purely 
instrumental  music.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  make  really  effective  use  of  the 
crescendo,  increased  the  efficiency  of  the  violins  by  adding  richer  and  more  varied 
ornamentation,  and  showed  a  tendency  to  make  proper  use  of  tone-color.  In  a 
word,  his  instrumentation,  together  with  that  of  Pergolesi,  ushered  in  a  new  epoch 
in  Italy. 

IV. 

Germany.  The  seed  of  the  new  movement  in  France  soon  bore  fruit  in 
Germany  in  the  form  of  the  Singspiel,  which,  however,  sturdily  maintained  its 
indigenous  characteristics,  since  not  the  form  but  the  spirit  only  of  the  French 
comic  opera  with  spoken  dialogue  had  been  accepted.  J.  A.  Hiller,  as  the  prime 
mover  in  thus  establishing  a  national  form  of  operetta,  was  emulated  by  Ditters- 
dorf,  who  learned  much  from  the  French  composers,  though  more  from  Haydn, 
as  is  evidenced  by  the  form  and  instrumentation  of  his  symphonies.  The  climax 
of  German  operatic  enterprise  in  the  eighteenth  century  was  reached  when  in 
1778  the  "Deutsches  Nationalspiel"  was  founded  in  Vienna,  bringing  to  that 
city  lasting  prominence  in  dramatic  affairs.  For  the  liberal  spirit  that  was  shown 
in  throwing  open  its  doors  to  all  worthy  applicants,  irrespective  of  nationality  or 
style  of  writing,  attracted  such  composers  as  Gluck,  Dittersdorf,  Salieri,  Mozart. 
And  the  eclecticism  in  objective,  in  form,  in  orchestration,  that  consequently 
pervaded  the  artistic  atmosphere  which  Beethoven  was  soon  to  breathe, 
must  have  unconsciously  struck  a  sympathetic  chord  in  the  insatiable  longings 
of  Beethoven's  soul  to  find  food  for  his  selective  and  synthetical  methods  of 
procedure. 

V. 

The  Concert  Orchestra.  Meanwhile  the  concert  orchestra  was  rapidly 
winning  wider  recognition,  since  Haydn  and  his  contemporaries,  Sammartini, 
Gossec,  Gr6try,  had  already  excited  marked  attention.  In  1770  the  "Concerts 
des  Amateurs"  were  founded  by  Gossec,  followed  shortly  by  his  reorganization 
of  the  "Concerts  spirituels."  And  but  a  few  years  later  the  Leipzig  Gewandhaus, 
of  which  Hiller  was  the  first  conductor^,  was  placed  on  a  permanent  basis, 
being  largely  due  to  his  untiring  efforts  in  behalf  of  orchestral  concerts. 

Although  the  permanent  bulwark  of  modem  instrumentation  was  reared  by 
Haydn,  important  experiments  were  successfully  developed  by  the  Milanese, 
Sammartini,  and  the  Bohemian,  Stamitz,  both  of  whom  were  bom  at  the  same 


GLUCK    AND    HIS    CONTEMPORARIES  43 

period  with  Gluck;  further  by  the  German,  Cannabich,  and  the  Belgian,  Gossec, 
both  bom  in  the  same  decade  as  Haydn;  finally,  by  the  Frenchman,  Gr^try. 
Thus  representatives  of  five  nationalities  were  simultaneously  engaged  in  carrying 
on  the  same  work,  their  fields  of  activity  being,  moreover,  widely  dispersed.  Sam- 
martini,  also  noted  as  the  teacher  of  Gluck,  remained  loyal  to  his  own  city;  Gossec 
and  Grdtry  were  occupied  in  Paris;  Stamitz  and  Cannabich,  conductors  rather 
than  composers,  were  successively  settled  as  directors  of  the  Electoral  band  at 
Mannheim/'^ 

It  is  a  peculiar  coincidence  that  Italy,  which  has  never  yet  produced  a  great 
symphonic  writer,  should  be  able  to  point  to  Giovanni  Sammartini  as  the  earliest 
exponent  of  this  form  in  the  modem  sense.  For  already  in  1734  his  first  orches- 
tral symphony  was  produced  in  Milan  where  he  was  conductor.  At  that  date 
Haydn  was  but  two  years  old.  Of  course  Sammartini  obtained  no  such  results  as 
did  his  great  German  successor,  but  he  at  least  suggested  the  proper  course  by 
which  clearer  form  and  healthier  orchestration  might  be  secured,  and  his  instru- 
mentation abounds  in  new  and  interesting  traits.  In  addition  to  having  written 
a  host  of  symphonies,  of  which  twenty-four  were  published,  his  labors  in  other 
branches  of  composition  were  prodigious.  Incidentally,  his  experience  as  a 
writer  of  string  quartets  taught  him  the  value  of  the  viola,  in  consequence  of 
which,  independent  parts  for  that  instrument  as  advocated  by  Scarlatti  are  like- 
wise to  be  found  in  his  orchestral  scores. 

The  value  of  Gossec's  persistent  energy  in  both  building  up  the  standard  of 
already  existing  orchestral  organizations  and  in  establishing  a  new  one  is  twofold. 
For  not  only  was  the  French  public  educated  to  encourage  home  talent  to  seek 
expression  in  independent  orchestral  language,  but  also  by  affording  these  same 
French  aspirants  frequent  opportunity  for  hearing  the  masterpieces  of  foreign 
contemporaries  was  the  French  style  of  writing  for  the  orchestra  immensely 
strengthened  and  broadened.  Considering  the  close  affinity  that  bound  Gossec's 
birthplace  to  France,  he  may  well  be  regarded  as  a  representative  of  the  country 
which  he  had  adopted  as  his  own.  As  the  founder  of  the  first  genuine  symphonic 
orchestra  in  France,  he  himself  set  the  example  as  a  diligent  composer  of  sym- 
phonies and  string  quartets,  although,  unfortunately,  the  former  were  at  first  not 
favorably  received.  Nevertheless,  his  perseverance  eventually  won  the  day, 
especially  after  he  had  been  crowned  with  new  laurels  as  an  operatic  composer; 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Gluck-Piccini  controversy,  some  of  his  later  symphonies 
finally  obtained  for  him  that  recognition  to  which  he  had  aspired.     Lavoix  avers 

(')  To  this  list  might  properly  be  added  the  name  of  the  Italian,  dall'  Abaco,  since  his  scores,  being 
now  also  available  for  study,  reveal  many  interesting  traits  pointing  toward  originality  and  progress. 
He  is  to  be  classed  among  the  earlier  composers  of  this  period,  for  he  was  prominently  associated  with 
the  musical  life  of  Munich  during  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


44 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 


that  Gossec  was  the  first  French  writer  to  make  use  of  the  clarinet.  Again,  its 
introduction  into  the  Opera  in  1772  —  just  in  time  to  be  of  service  to  Gluck  — 
is  apparently  authenticated  by  Francoeur.  Since,  however,  the  clarinet  was 
already  embodied  in  Rameau's  scoring,  the  present  writer  desires  to  call  attention 
to  these  obvious  discrepancies.  At  all  events,  we  know  that  the  resources  of  the 
clarinet  were  developed  by  both  Gossec  and  Gluck,  even  though  at  that  time  only 
an  incomplete  scale  in  the  keys  of  C  and  F  could  be  obtained  from  the  instrument. 
Gossec  was  not  conspicuously  original  either  in  instrumental  form  or  in  orches- 
tration, even  though  his  Requiem,  for  example,  does  contain  instances  of  inter- 
esting scoring.  Neither  does  the  fact  that  his  first  symphony  preceded  Haydn's 
by  five  years  credit  him  with  being  an  epoch-making  orchestral  composer.  For 
his  productions,  like  those  of  Sammartini,  are  now  but  of  historic  interest,  where- 
as Haydn's  still  find  ready  listeners.  And  so  his  place  in  history  is  distinctly  that 
of  pioneer  and  promoter  of  independent  orchestral  performance,  and  with  the 
organization  of  the  "Concerts  des  Amateurs"  his  programs  included  the  works 
of  such  foreign  composers  as  the  Belgian,  van  Malder,  the  Bohemian,  Wanhal, 
likewise  Stamitz,  eventually  Haydn.  His  career  is  certainly  unique,  since  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  he  was  bom  two  years  after  Haydn's  birth  and  died  two  years  after 
Beethoven's  death,  the  complete  panorama  of  the  classic  era  was  unfolded 
before  his  eyes,  and  during  the  course  of  his  ninety-five  years  it  was  his  privilege 
to  witness  the  ascendency  in  turn  of  Gluck,  Haydn,  Mozart  and  Beethoven 
together  with  their  co-workers.  During  his  lifetime,  moreover,  there  sprang  into 
existence  also  the  Romantic  Movement  which,  emerging  out  of  the  later  works 
of  Beethoven,  was  seized  upon  and  elaborated  by  Spohr  and  Weber  with  their 
followers. 

A  striking  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  at  this  period  the  concert  stage 
was  already  exerting  its  power  is  aflforded  by  the  biography  of  Gretry,  who  in 
spite  of  his  restless  dramatic  disposition  found  time,  in  the  enthusiasm  of  his 
productiveness,  to  write  no  less  than  six  symphonies,  not  to  mention  a  number  of 
minor  works  in  the  form  of  chamber  music  —  and  this  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that 
he  did  not  know  how  to  write  for  the  orchestra!  His  saving  grace  in  this  field  was 
his  fund  of  humor,  tuneful  melody  and  sound  musical  judgment. 

Notwithstanding  all  that  has  just  been  said,  these  signs  of  activity  in  France 
cannot  be  compared  with  contemporary  achievements  in  Germany,  henceforth 
to  be  the  permanent  home  and  supreme  arbiter  of  cyclic  form  and  stable  instru- 
mentation. And  not  the  least  of  the  inceptive  stimuli  leading  to  the  discovery  of 
the  proper  constituency  of  a  perfectly  balanced  orchestra  must  be  accredited  to 
the  Mannheim  orchestra,  which  became  celebrated  under  Stamitz  and  Cannabich. 
At  the  time  of  Mozart's  birth,  that  organization  embraced  a  string  band  of  ten 
first  violins,  ten  seconds,  four  violas,  four  'cellos  and  four  double-basses.     It  will 


GLUCK   AND    HIS    CONTEMPORARIES  45 

be  seen  at  a  glance  that  excepting  a  paucity  of  violas,  the  value  of  plentiful  strings 
and  their  numerical  relation  one  to  the  other  was  keenly  appreciated.  The  wood- 
wind was  likewise  logically  represented  by  two  flutes,  two  oboes,  two  bassoons,  to 
which  clarinets  were  added  some  ten  years  later.  There  were  also  four  horns,  twelve 
trumpets  and  trombones,  kettle-drums,  an  organ,  and  a  chorus  of  twenty-four 
voices.  Why  so  many  instruments  of  brass  should  have  been  considered  neces- 
sary is  open  to  question.  Independent  parts  for  not  more  than  two  horns  and 
two  trumpets  was  the  rule  among  the  early  symphonic  writers,  and  not  one  of 
Haydn's  symphonies  contains  parts  for  more  than  two  horns,  neither  did  his 
simple  demands  require  more  than  two  trumpets.  True,  Mozart  occasionally 
called  for  four  horns  in  his  earlier  works,  but  like  Haydn,  he  used  trumpets 
but  sparingly.  It  is  hardly  conceivable  that  competent  conductors  of  so  noble 
an  organization  could  have  been  guilty  of  such  inartistic  procedure  as  to  allow  the 
brass,  comparatively  unimportant  as  their  functions  were  at  that  time,  to  be  reen- 
forced  by  reduplication.  These  supernumerary  instruments  must  have  remained 
silent  at  concert  performances,  being  reserved  rather  for  dramatic  representations 
or  sacred  renditions  for  which  they  could  be  of  more  legitimate  service.  ^*^ 

Interesting  are  the  comparisons  between  the  constituency  of  the  Dresden 
orchestra  in  1732  and  that  of  Mannheim  in  1756.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
when  referring  to  Hasse,  the  Dresden  Opera  was  cited  as  harboring  twenty-five 
strings,  wood-wind  instruments  to  the  number  of  twelve,  two  horns,  a  number  of 
trumpets  and  trombones,  besides  kettle-drums  and  two  clavichords  —  in  all  some 
fifty  instrumental  performers.  And,  as  already  enumerated,  the  orchestra  at 
Mannheim  was  comprised  of  thirty-two  strings,  six  wood  and  sixteen  brass  instru- 
ments, as  well  as  kettle-drums  and  organ,  making  a  total  of  about  sixty.  All  in 
all,  the  venerable  operatic  orchestras  during  the  eighteenth  century  were  the  fuller 
and  richer  in  resources,  and  were  in  possession  of  a  larger  numerical  disposition 
of  wood  and  brass  even  if  inadequately  supplied  with  strings.  But  the  tendency 
to  correct  this  deficiency  in  the  constitution  of  concert  orchestras  resulted  in  the 
acquirement  of  greater  elasticity  and  transparency,  which  was  of  all  importance 
for  the  interpretation  of  the  works  of  the  great  classicists  whose  servitor  the  orches- 
tra was  soon  to  become.  And  subsequently  in  writing  for  specific  orchestras 
for  which  a  sufficient  number  of  strings  had  not  yet  been  supplied,  it  may  be  that 
these  masters  intuitively  presaged  that  this  much  needed  metamorphosis  of 
internal  organization  would  gradually  take  place  as  the  direct  reflex  of  their  own 

(*)  Another  plausible  explanarion  is  that  the  extra  trumpeters  and  trombonists  should  be  accredited 
to  the  "Hof  Musik, "  which  may  have  been  only  an  adjunct  to  the  "Hof  Kapelle. "  Their  principal 
duty  may  have  been  to  announce  the  arrival  of  the  Elector  by  a  fanfare,  and  to  give  other  signals  at  the 
many  public  functions  of  the  Court.  It  has  been  pointed  out  to  the  present  writer  that  this  theory  seems 
confirmed  by  an  illustration  in  a  book  covering  this  period  where  is  shown  a  boxful  of  trumpeters  at  a 
Court  performance  of  opera  at  Dresden. 


46  THE   EVOLUTION    OF   MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

exalted  demands  for  improved  instrumentation  and  artistic  rendition.  Fortu- 
nately, sentient  appreciation  for  careful  rehearsal  leading  to  a  high  standard  of 
rendition  had  already  found  a  champion  in  Emanuel  Bach,  and  this  objective 
was  jealously  fostered  by  Gossec,  Stamitz  and  Cannabich,  all  of  whom  devoted 
themselves  assiduously  to  the  obtainment  of  purity  of  tone,  equality  of  dynamic 
force,  precision  and  cooperation,  elasticity,  phraseology,  nuance.  Naturally,  the 
violin,  by  virtue  of  artistic  merit  and  paramount  importance,  received  their  most 
careful  attention,  in  consequence  of  which  the  standard  of  the  strings  as  a  whole 
was  elevated  to  that  proficiency  which  made  it  possible  for  the  classicists  to  employ 
them  with  such  freedom  as  had  never  before  been  essayed. 

The  aim  of  this  comparative  survey  of  orchestras  and  orchestration  as  related 
with  the  complex  phases  of  musical  progression  during  the  careers  of  Bach, 
Handel  and  Gluck  has  been  to  elucidate  the  artistic  situation  as  found  by  the 
three  succeeding  masters. 

(Summary  on  page  68.) 


CHAPTER  VII. 

HAYDN,  MOZART,  AND  BEETHOVEN. 

I. 

It  is  almost  superfluous  to  say  that  f*)  Haydn  (173  2-1 809),  the  true  father 
of  the  modem  symphony  and  string  quartet,  was,  after  Monteverde  and  Scarlatti, 
the  most  potent  factor  in  establishing  a  perfectly  balanced  orchestra  as  a  whole. 
Indeed,  one  might  modify  the  eulogy  previously  bestowed  upon  Monteverde, 
and  say  that  whereas  he  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  father  of  modem  instrumen- 
tation, Haydn  was  the  father  of  modern  orchestration.  Like  Monteverde,  he 
was  constantly  experimenting,  being,  moreover,  aided  by  his  exceptionally  favor- 
able position  at  the  court  of  Prince  Esterhazy.  To  such  an  extent  are 
his  achievements  known  to  all,  that  it  is  permissible  to  but  touch  upon  the  vital 
landmarks  which  constitute  the  distinguishable  features  of  his  quasi-created  cyclic 
forms.  This  term  is  used  advisedly,  for  although  he  accepted  the  erudite  forms  of 
his  predecessors  and  contemporaries,  and,  like  them,  devolved  the  symphony  from 
the  earlier  concerto  for  several  instruments,  he  improved  upon  these  forms  to  such 
a  degree,  that  they  emerged  from  their  archaic  chrysalis  in  rejuvenated  attire. 

Lack  of  space  forbids  more  than  a  passing  reference  to  the  coevolution  of  the 
string  quartet,  that  momentous  vehicle  for  the  sonata  form,  whose  growth  was 
concurrent  with  that  of  the  symphony.  But  in  both  these  branches  of  art  Haydn 
left  his  indelible  stamp  upon  the  creations  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven,  indeed 
Mozart,  though  more  emotional  and  impressive,  did  not  enlarge  upon  Haydn's 
form,  and  even  Beethoven,  the  tone-poet,  remained  to  the  last  true  to  its  substance. 
Parenthetically  it  should  be  remembered  that  on  the  other  hand  Haydn's  quartets 
and  symphonies  were  in  turn  influenced  by  Mozart,  from  whom,  moreover,  both 
he  and  Beethoven  acquired  a  more  subtle  insight  into  the  skilful  handhng  of  the 
wood-wind.  The  symphonies  of  Haydn  and  Beethoven  have  been  felicitously 
compared  by  styling  those  of  the  former,  comedies,  those  of  the  latter,  tragedies. 
Finally,  the  extent  to  which  the  reputation  of  Haydn's  symphonies  travelled  is 
discovered  in  the  already  mentioned  performances  thereof  in  Paris  (at  the  "Con- 
certs des  Amateurs,"  founded  by  the  Belgian  Gossec,  for  which  organization 
Haydn  specifically  composed  several  symphonies),  not  to  speak  of  his  triumphs 
in  London  as  well  as  in  the  musical  centres  of  his  native  land. 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  lo  to  17. 

47 


48  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    MODERN    ORCHESTRATION 

These  rather  extended  references  to  the  rise  of  symphonic  music  are  surely 
justifiable  in  that  from  it  dates  the  dynasty  of  monarchical  orchestration. ^^^ 

Haydn's  development  of  his  formal  architecture  can  be  summed  up  by  saying 
that  he  knit  together  and  enlarged  the  cycle  of  complex  forms,  extended  the 
separate  movements  individually,  imparted  to  them  order,  clearness,  variety, 
and  developed  free  thematic  treatment. 

As  has  just  been  stated,  the  orchestra  in  Haydn's  plasmic  hands  improved  as 
a  unit.  He  introduced  no  new  instruments  excepting  later  on  the  clarinet,  indeed, 
his  scores  betray  on  the  whole  a  greater  reticence  in  the  employment  of  numeric 
varieties  of  instruments  than  do  those  of  Bach  and  Handel.  Haydn's  genius 
matured  slowly;  his  earlier  scoring  does  not  exhibit  any  advanced  degree  of  origin- 
ality, and  not  until  after  Mozart  had  in  turn  become  the  greater  did  Haydn  stand 
forth  in  the  true  strength  of  his  greatness.  The  antennae  of  that  long-lived  crus- 
tacean, the  Neapolitan  School,  had  touched  even  Haydn  as  they  had  Handel  before 
him,  and  the  influence  was  directly  beneficial,  since  it  modified  the  Teutonic 
tendencies  inoculated  by  his  predilection  for  the  style  of  Emmanuel  Bach,  and 
fostered  a  regard  for  melody.  Though  he  used  no  new  material,  Haydn  instituted 
a  freer  method  of  employing  each  instrument  according  to  its  peculiarities  and 
powers.  Despite  the  fact  that  he  was  addicted  to  the  custom  of  three-part 
string  writing  as  established  by  Cavalli  long  before,  he  developed  the  art 
of  welding  the  component  parts  firmly  together,  and  thereby  secured  vitality 
and  elasticity. 

The  strings  were  now  one  complete  and  compact  body.  (»)  Careful  attention 
was  bestowed  both  upon  the  manner  of  writing  for  them  and  upon  a  judicious 
numerical  selection  of  each  species  to  the  end  that  they  might  not  only  balance, 
but  also  assist  and  show  off  to  the  best  advantage  the  characteristic  qualities  of 
every  part,  one  against  the  other.  Only  the  violoncello  was  as  yet  subservient, 
and  the  harpsichord  was  still  retained. 

In  the  distribution  of  the  parts  for  the  wood-wind,  he  at  first  imitated  Handel's 
usual  methods  of  merely  reenforcing  the  string  parts  in  unison.  But  having  bene- 
fited by  repeated  practical  experience,  and  especially  after  the  appearance  of 
Mozart  upon  the  arena,  Haydn's  writing  for  the  wood  became  freer,  (b)  The  oboe, 
whose  functions  are  now  largely  supplanted  by  the  more  feminine  and  soulful 
clarinet,  was  much  used  as  a  solo  instrument.  And  when  at  last  the  great  classi- 
cists came  upon  the  discovery  that  by  supporting  a  solo  instrument  with  held 
chords  in  the  wind,(c)  they  could  attain  a  more  pliant  mode  of  expression  than  had 

(')  It  is  not  intended  to  belittle  the  original  and  valuable  efforts  of  the  Mannheim  composer,  Stamitz, 
and  of  the  several  other  representatives  of  various  nations  as  referred  to  on  pages  42  and  43,  even  though 
preeminence  in  the  development  of  orchestration  and  form  is  accorded  to  Haydn  and  Mozart, 
(a)  Ex.  16,  17.  (b)  Ex.  II,  14,  15.  (c)  Ex.  13. 


HAYDN,    MOZART,    AND    BEETHOVEN  49 

been  possible  in  the  earlier  stiff  and  formal  polyphonic  style,  —  from  that  time 
on  a  new  and  poetic  pathway  was  opened  up,  and  the  modem  style  of  writing 
for  the  wood-wind  may  be  said  to  have  fairly  begun. 

In  the  use  of  the  brass  Haydn  was  conservative.  Trombones  were  absent 
from  his  symphonic  scheme,  and  the  province  of  trumpets,  if  they  were  used  at  all, 
was  exceedingly  primitive,  so  that  only  the  horns  gained  greater  freedom  of  treat- 
ment. Thus,  for  example,  the  valuable  and  eventually  common  custom  of  strength- 
ening the  bass  by  sustained  tonic  and  dominant  horn  parts  was  employed  by  Haydn 
in  his  symphony  in  D,  No.  2  (Breitkopf  &  Haertel).  But  more  than  two  real  parts 
for  horns  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  of  his  works,  and  the  demand  for  four  horns 
in  the  Hunting  Chorus  in  his  "Seasons"  will,  at  a  glance,  be  recognized  as  having 
for  its  purpose  the  reduplication  of  two-part  writing,  so  as  to  obtain  a  clearer 
melodic  delineation.  And  although  prominence  of  metallic  quahty  was  thus 
acquired,  the  rich  chord  effect  of  later  times  is  conspicuous  for  its  absence. 

When  Haydn  wrote  his  first  symphony  at  the  time  when  Mozart  was  in  his 
infancy,  he  employed,  in  addition  to  strings,  only  two  oboes  and  two  horns.  By 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  normal  symphonic  orchestra  had  been 
increased  so  as  to  include  strings,  two  flutes,  two  oboes,  two  bassoons,  two  horns, 
two  trumpets  and  kettle-drums.  To  these  were  quite  occasionally  added  two 
clarinets.  The  role  of  the  trumpets  as  well  as  of  kettle-drums  was  to  augment 
the  effectiveness  of  climaxes,  to  emphasize  rhythm,  to  add  virility,  or  to  suggest 
martial  portraiture.  But  the  harp  shared  the  fortunes  of  the  trombones  in  that 
it  was  as  yet  denied  admittance  to  the  symphonic  phalanx. 

Of  incidental  interest  is  the  characteristic  deployment  of  bassoons  in  the  slow 
movement  of  the  symphony  in  D  already  referred  to;  and  the  introduction  into 
the  orchestra  of  massed  short  chords  struck  simultaneously  by  all  the  strings 
must  also  be  attributed  to  Haydn. 

Finally,  his  "Creation"  embodies  successful  expedients  for  descriptive  wTiting. 
In  this  masterpiece,  the  strings,  together  with  a  full  complement  of  wind  instru- 
ments in  pairs,  are  further  augmented  by  the  usual  kettle-drums,  a  double-bassoon, 
and  three  trombones,  —  an  aggregation  which,  apart  from  the  manner  of  using 
it  for  the  purpose  of  tone-painting,  is  typical  of  Beethoven's  enlarged  orchestra 
as  employed  in  his  crowning  graphic  movements.  However,  this  demand  for  so 
huge  an  apparatus  as  the  assistant  to  Haydn's  mightiest  choral  and  embryo- 
romantic  composition  was  exceptional,  and  as  the  corollary  of  his  orchestration, 
when  reviewed  as  a  whole,  one  might  say  that  he  worked  with  simple  means,  and 
although  his  pages  do  not  present  delicate  combinations,  he  obtained  vigorous 
and  fresh  results.  ^^^ 

(d)  Ex.  10,  12,  17. 


50  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


II. 

(*)  Mozart  (1756-1791),  universal  conqueror,  peerless  melodist,  unrivalled 
purist,  contributed  equally  to  the  development  of  orchestration  as  to  all  other 
branches  of  musical  art.  Opera,  symphony,  chamber  and  church  music  alike 
blossomed  and  ripened  at  his  magic  touch;  and  the  tonal  tints  of  his  scoring 
assumed  a  mellow  guise  foreign  to  the  lighter  shading  of  Haydn's  orchestration. 
Mozart  was  a  cosmopolitan  in  so  far  as  that  he  moulded  his  polyphony,  formal 
structure  and  orchestration  in  accordance  with  the  classicism  of  Teutonic  lineage, 
imbibed  the  limpid  suavity  of  Italian  melody,  and  adapted  the  tragic  energy  and 
emotional  interpretation  of  the  text  as  initiated  by  Gluck  in  France.  This  vivid 
emotionalism  is  plainly  to  be  seen  in  the  dramatic  scenes  of  "Idomeneo"  and 
"Don  Giovanni."  His  perfect  command  of  contrapuntal  subtleties,  thematic 
development,  and  vocal  composition,  combined  with  the  most  precocious  creative 
genius,  enabled  him  not  only  to  build  upon  the  heirloom  of  Bach's  church  music 
and  Haydn's  symphonies  and  quartets,  but  to  establish  a  basis  for  subsequent 
genuinely  German  opera.  For  it  is  beyond  question  that  specifically  the  "Zauber- 
flote"  contains  the  germ  of  Weber's  romanticism. 

For  the  form  of  his  independent  instrumental  works,  Mozart  followed  the 
precepts  of  Haydn,  but  he  enlarged  them,  and  imbued  their  contents  with  a  certain 
strategic  power  for  evoking  more  serious  contemplation  and  enduring  impressive- 
ness.  Adherence  to  tonality,  not  only  in  each  individually  complete  movement, 
but  also  in  successive  and  related  complex  forms,  was  one  of  the  fundamental 
canons  of  Mozart's  creed.  This  tonal  consistency  is  to  be  found  even  in  his 
operas,  whether  employed  as  the  connecting  link  between  the  more  gentle 
sections  —  suggestive  of  a  delicate  string  of  pearls,  or  as  a  mode  of  obtaining 
subtle  continuity  of  thought  and  action  in  the  dramatic  portions. 

In  orchestration,  Mozart  combined  the  best  characteristics  of  both  Gluck  and 
Haydn,  and  in  his  hands  it  gained  counterpoise  and  vitality.  As  a  natural  out- 
come, the  harpsichord  was  banished  from  the  orchestra,  but  incidentally  it  should 
be  remembered  that  by  no  means  did  Mozart  undervalue  this  instrument  in  its 
proper  sphere,  for  to  him  is  due  the  ascendency  of  the  pianoforte  concerto,  which 
he  left  as  a  direct  bequest  to  Beethoven,  who  not  only  seized  upon  it  with  avidity, 
but  even  caused  it  to  immortalize  some  of  his  most  sublime  conceptions. 
Mozart's  writing  for  the  orchestra  is  distinguishable  for  amalgamating  as  well 
as  for  contrasting  the  earlier  polyphonic  methods  with  the  monophonic  style  that 
was  being  cultivated  by  his  contemporaries.  The  last  movement  of  the  "  Jupiter" 
symphony  will  at  once  be  recalled  as  an  admirable  illustration  of  advanced  orches- 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  i8  to  23. 


HAYDN,    MOZART,    AND    BEETHOVEN  51 

tral  polyphony.  (*)  As  has  just  been  said,  Mozart  followed  and  elaborated  Haydn's 
symphonic  instrumentation,  but  he  added  greater  freedom  to  the  strings,  ^^^  more 
variety  and  contrast  to  the  wood,  (">  developed  the  art  of  combining  wind  accom- 
paniment and  instrumental  solo  effects,  ^^^  and  in  general  illustrated  the  capabilities 
and  ideal  functions  of  each  specific  instrument.  Furthermore,  constant  applica- 
tion to  operatic  writing  stimulated  a  desire  for  varied  rhythm,  and  this  attainment 
is  reflected  in  his  symphonic  compositions.  Finally,  it  should  be  said  with 
emphasis  that  sensitive  regard  for  individualistic  tonal  tints  in  instrumentation 
was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  attributes  of  Mozart's  genius,  and  despite  the 
fact  that  already  the  masters  of  his  epoch  had  had  recourse  to  the  application  of 
variated  tone-color,  nevertheless  Mozart  is  universally  considered  as  having  been 
the  first  to  do  so  in  a  really  successful  manner.  By  relegating  the  harpsichord,  it 
became  necessary  to  write  for  the  strings  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  independent 
solidity  and  coherence.  Or,  to  put  it  the  other  way,  Mozart's  scoring  for  the 
string  band  made  further  employment  of  the  harpsichord  superfluous.  This  he 
accomplished  in  the  face  of  frequent  three-part  writing.  The  danger  of  incurring 
caesuras  in  harmonic  structure  or  lack  in  volume  of  sound  was  obviated  by  the 
skilful  artifice  of  contrapuntal  motion  which,  so  to  speak,  generates  warmth  of 
tonal  color  —  heat  and  motion  being  an  equivalent  one  for  the  other,  and,  as 
Gevaert  suggests,  this  theorem  is  applicable  to  music.  But  Mozart  by  no  means 
neglected  four-part  writing,  (*)  and  both  the  violoncello  and  the  hitherto  much 
neglected  viola  were  advanced  to  a  position  more  in  keeping  with  their  worth. 
Mozart's  employment  of  the  symphonic  orchestra  was  one  of  conservatism  in 
regard  to  compass,  as  illustrated  by  the  G  minor  symphony,  from  which  even 
trumpets  and  kettle-drums  are  debarred.  Peculiar  to  the  scoring  of  his  greatest 
symphonies  is  the  consistent  use  of  but  one  flute,  whereas  the  remaining  wind  is 
represented  in  pairs.  Delicacy  was  the  key-note  for  the  wood-wind.  For 
example,  he  delighted  in  embellishing  a  melody  by  the  combination  of  violins 
redoubled  in  the  octave  by  a  flute  and  in  the  sub-octave  by  a  bassoon.  Another 
distinguishable  trait  of  his  was  the  substituting  of  an  oboe  for  the  violins  in  the 
above  combination.  These  are  but  passing  exemplifications  of  countless  dainty 
conceptions  that  the  most  casual  perusal  of  his  pages  will  divulge;  and  they  offer 
an  unwearying  source  of  delectation  in  consequence  of  their  naive  and  guileless 
character.  It  is  true  that  for  Tuttis,  Mozart  was  satisfied  with  certain  conven- 
tional methods,  such  as  an  exaggerated  use  of  wood-wind  passages  in  thirds  and 
sixths.  But  this  practice  was  common  likewise  to  Beethoven,  and  not  until  after 
the  advent  of  the  Romanticists  did  it  fall  into  disuse,  indeed,  no  less  a  modem 
conservative  than  Brahms  was  content  to  adapt  classical  mannerisms  of  this 

(a)  Ex.  20.  (b)  Ex.  19,  20.  fc)  Ex.  18,  22,  23. 

(d)  Ex.  21.  (e)  Ex.  19. 


52  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

nature.  But  only  subsequent  to  Mozart's  visit  to  Mannheim  when  he  was  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  and  not  until  after  he  had  convinced  himself  of  the  indispen- 
sability  of  the  clarinet  —  that  sympathetic  medium  between  high  and  low  wood- 
wind —  was  it  pKJSsible  to  give  adequate  variety  of  color  and  effect  to  this  hitherto 
rather  homogeneous  secondary  choir.  And  thus,  concurrent  with  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  wood-wind  from  many  stereotyped  formulas,  was  the  recognition 
that  clarinets  began  to  command  in  Mozart's  orchestral  scheme.  And  although 
they  were  originally  included  only  in  the  symphony  in  E  flat/f)  he  eventually 
added  them  to  the  one  in  G  minor;  and  in  the  "Zauberflote"  the  instrument 
received  effective  and  original  treatment.  Again,  although  Mozart's  sunny 
nature  would  not  naturally  conceive  such  morbid  and  sentimental  effects 
as  elicited  by  Weber  from  the  lower  tones  of  the  clarinet,  he  at  any  rate  appre- 
ciated a  certain  value  of  such  tones  by  employing  them  in  the  course  of  flowing 
passages  ^«^  as  in  the  first  Finale  of  "  Don  Giovanni. "  Mention  is  due,  at  this 
juncture,  of  the  prominent  appearance  in  the  "Zauberflote"  of  the  obsolete  basset- 
hom,  since,  as  will  be  recalled,  it  belongs  to  the  genealogy  of  clarinets  and  is 
now  superseded  by  its  descendant,  the  bass-clarinet.  The  classic  literature  of 
chamber  music  presents  no  more  favorable  examples  for  profitable  study  than 
do  Mozart's  divertissements,  in  which  various  combinations  of  wind  instruments 
alone  are  treated  with  rare  delicacy  and  effectiveness.  Not  being  subjected,  as 
in  orchestral  compositions,  to  comparison  with  the  greater  agility  and  more  sensi- 
tive attributes  of  the  strings,  they  are  enabled  to  assert  themselves,  and  to  display 
in  full  measure  their  individual  characteristics  and  expressive  powers. 

Mozart's  requirements  of  the  brass  show  but  a  slight  improvement  upon  those 
of  Haydn,  *^  excepting  that  his  style  of  writing  for  it  betrays  better  judgment.  A 
demand  for  more  than  two  horns  was  rare,  and  occurs,  strange  to  say,  in  his 
earlier  works,  for  some  of  which  he  employed  four.  Later  on  he  again  exceptionally 
used  this  number  in  "Idomeneo."  But  of  his  representative  creations,  the  G 
minor  symphony  is  scored  for  but  two  horns,  the  E  flat  and  C  for  two  horns  and 
two  trumpets.  Consistent  with  the  usage  of  his  predecessors,  it  was  only 
in  church  music  for  redoubling  the  voices  and  in  operatic  works  for  dramatic 
effects  that  Mozart  drew  upon  the  trombones,  at  first  sparingly,  eventually,  as  in 
the  " Zauberflote,"  more  freely;  and  Gluck's  precedent  of  employing  them  in 
three-part  harmony  was  sustained. 

In  so  brief  an  outline,  it  is  not  possible  to  more  than  indicate  the  cardinal 
points  of  evolutionary  advancement  as  contributed  to  orchestration  by  Mozart. 
But  one  prominent  feature  of  his  preeminent  versatility  reveals  itself  in  the  fact 
that  whereas  the  long  line  of  his  illustrious  predecessors  had,  with  the  one  excep- 
tion of  Haydn,  developed  the  art  of  writing  for  the  orchestra  more  as  a  secondary 

(f)  Ex.  22,  23.  (8)  Ex.  23.  (h)  Ex.  20. 


HAYDN,    MOZART,    AND    BEETHOVEN  53 

means  to  some  one  particular  and  all-absorbing  primary  end,  Mozart's  genius 
devoted  itself  with  impartiality  and  parallel  success  just  as  much  to  instrumenta- 
tion and  orchestration  as  to  the  formal  structures  of  his  instrumental  works  or  to 
the  contents  of  his  operas  and  masses.  And  the  laurels  that  crown  the  herculean 
achievements  of  his  brief  life  are  symbolic  of  the  aesthetic,  the  chaste,  the  ideal 


III. 

Three  prominent  characteristics  are  associated  with  the  name  of  (*^  Beethoven 
(1770-1827),  the  greatest  universal  master  in  the  chronicles  of  musical  history. 
To  him  must  be  attributed  the  ideal  culmination  of  classic  purity,  both  as  to 
structural  design  and  thematic  development.  Through  him,  form  became 
subordinated  to  human  expression.  From  him  the  Romantic  Movement  drew 
its  direct  inspiration.  In  other  words,  Beethoven  forged  the  connecting  link 
between  the  classicists  and  the  romanticists,  between  absolute  and  programmatic, 
objective  and  subjective  music,  between  the  primarily  formal  and  the  essentially 
soulfuL  In  the  general  principles  of  form  and  technical  procedure,  Beethoven 
accepted  the  precedents  established  by  his  immediate  predecessors,  and  his 
earlier  works  show  the  influence  of  both  Haydn  and  Mozart.  But  the  impelling 
force  of  his  independent  and  assertive  genius,  nurtured  by  the  rugged  character- 
istics peculiar  to  the  tendencies  of  his  Dutch  and  German  descent,  urged  him  to 
further  bold  and  unhesitating  innovations  whenever  novel  effects  could  thereby 
be  attained. 

In  connection  with  distinctively  formal  treatment,  the  most  prominent  feature 
of  this  amplification  lies  in  the  development  even  to  minuteness  of  inner  details, 
the  unification  of  thematic  material,  the  increase  of  proportion,  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  breadth  of  style  and  nobility  of  subject-matter. 

But  of  far  more  momentous  purport  are  the  fruits  of  his  spirituality  and 
profound  religiousness.  Beethoven  was  a  tone-poet  to  the  core,  and  his  search 
for  emotional  expression  caused  him  to  disregard  fixed  design  whenever  it  inter- 
fered with  freedom  of  thought.  Thus  in  adapting  the  cyclic  sonata  form,  he 
enhanced  it  by  means  of  perfected  monody  based  on  the  higher  Folk-song,  by 
means  of  richer  harmonies,  freer  modulations,  varied  rhythm,  greater  license  in 
the  juxtaposition  of  tonalities,  and  elasticity  in  the  application  of  tradi- 
tional forms  —  Beethoven's  quest  for  beauty  of  form  being,  moreover,  only  sec- 
ondary in  importance  to  its  own  reactionary  fitness  for  beauty  of  expression. 
Thus  Beethoven  became  the  master  of  form  and  expression  combined,  reconciled, 
unified. 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  24  to  35. 


54  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Mozart  and  Beethoven  share  the  same  unique  and  unparalleled  characteristics 
in  that  the  genius  of  both  of  them  was  so  universal  in  nature  as  to  make  the 
question  of  deciding  in  what  particular  branch  of  composition  they  excelled  a 
difficult  one.  So  Beethoven,  greatest  of  symphonic  exponents,  enriched  the 
world  with  string  quartets  and  chamber  music  that  are  perfection  exemplified, 
produced  a  mighty  series  of  pianoforte  concertos  and  sonatas  that  are  unexcelled, 
and  dedicated  a  host  of  his  loftiest  inspirations  to  the  glorification  of  the  Church. 
He  wrote  but  one  opera  —  it  has  become  immortal;  but  one  oratorio  —  the 
sincerity  and  depth  of  its  pathos  awaken  sympathetic  response  at  each  renewed 
hearing;  but  one  violin  concerto  —  it  is  still  the  ideal,  likewise  the  despair  of  every 
violin  virtuoso.  And  upon  riveting  the  attention  solely  upon  the  instrumentation 
of  his  orchestral  pages,  one  finds  that  every  bar  of  the  score  bears  the  impress  of 
a  master's  touch,  and  of  such  a  master  as  the  world  had  never  before  produced. 
He  discovered  the  utmost  capabilities  of  each  instrument,  introduced  innovations 
in  the  method  of  handling  them,  both  as  solo  interpreters  and  in  combination, 
and  illustrated  that  even  without  the  aid  of  a  so-called  modem  orchestra,  picture- 
painting  can  be  attained.  That  is  to  say,  impressions  of  the  mind  of  insufficient 
distinctness  to  call  forth  verbal  utterance,  are  nevertheless  capable  of  tonal  exposi- 
tion. Hence  arises  the  expression  "musical  language,"  and  quite  especially  in 
connection  with  instrumentation  one  says  that  the  orchestra  "possesses  the 
faculty  of  language."  The  Pastoral  Symphony  is  a  graphic  exemplification  of 
this  truth. 

Beethoven's  instrumentation  bears  the  unmistakable  impress  of  his  own 
personal  individuality,  and  purely  sensuous  tone-effect  is  ever  subordinated  to 
the  inceptive  aesthetic  scheme  and  clearness  of  thematic  delineation.  The 
employment  of  specific  tonal  quality  of  the  various  instruments  capable  of  variated 
coloring,  effectiveness,  and  scope,  was  absolutely  faithful  to  the  momentary 
requirements  of  the  orchestral  situation.  And  thus,  while  his  predecessors  had 
been  absorbed  in  the  contemplation  and  exposition  of  abstract  musical  thought, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sequent  composers  of  the  nineteenth  century  laid 
undue  stress  upon  the  portrayal  of  their  conceptions  in  gorgeous  orchestral  raiment, 
Beethoven's  masterpieces  embody  the  temperate  assimilation  of  fervent  feeling, 
architectural  structure,  contrast  of  the  various  choirs,  and  intermixing  of  instru- 
mental coloring,  simultaneously  and  harmoniously  developed,  without  apparent 
effort,  all-satisfying,  inseparable. 

One  feature  of  Beethoven's  greatness  is  emphasized  by  the  self-restraint  he 
exercised  in  usually  making  demands  for  but  a  modest  apparatus  as  the  interpreter 
of  his  orchestral  conceptions.  Thus,  in  spite  of  being  tremendously  progressive, 
and  betraying  at  every  step  the  inclination  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  his  creations 
in  every  way,  he  was  content  to  employ  Mozart's  scoring  for  all  of  his  symphonies 


HAYDN,    MOZART,    AND    BEETHOVEN  55 

excepting  the  Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Ninth,  —  that  is  to  say,  strings,  the  four  usual 
wood-instruments  in  pairs,  two  horns,  two  trumpets,  and  kettle-drums,  were 
practically  sufficient  for  his  needs.  This  numerical  distribution  of  parts  differed 
but  slightly  in  all  but  the  above  three  excepted  symphonies.  Comparing  this 
aggregation  with  those  in  Mozart's  three  representative  symphonies,  we  find,  as 
the  only  diflference,  that  Beethoven's  wood-wind  includes  two  flutes  in  all  but  the 
Fourth  Symphony,  and  that  clarinets  were  now  enrolled  as  a  permanent  adjunct 
to  the  orchestra.  Two  horns  sufficed  for  them  all  excepting  for  the  Third, 
"Eroica,"  where  three  are  to  be  found,  this  being,  moreover,  the  first  time  that 
more  than  two  had  been  employed  in  symphonic  writing  by  Beethoven. 

The  orchestral  canvass  of  the  Fifth,  C  minor,  presents  the  cooperation  of  a 
piccolo  flute,  a  contra-bassoon,  and  three  trombones;  all  of  these,  however,  remain 
silent  until  the  victorious  entrance  of  the  Finale.  To  the  Sixth  —  the  Pastoral  — 
are  added  a  piccolo  flute  and  two  trombones  instead  of  three,  whereas  in  the  Ninth, 
the  usual  symphonic  cohort  is  supplemented  by  a  piccolo,  a  double-bassoon,  four 
horns,  three  trombones,  and  human  voices.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  this  new 
departure  of  employing  a  second  couplet  of  horns  in  the  symphonic  scheme 
concludes  the  evolution  of  the  classical  orchestra.  For  the  incorporation  into 
the  concert  orchestra  of  the  oboe  da  caccia,  resuscitated  in  the  form  of  the  English 
horn,  of  the  modern  bass-clarinet,  of  the  opheicleide  and  the  usurper  of  its  func- 
tions, the  bass-tuba,  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  Romantic  Movement.  Likewise 
the  harp,  in  spite  of  its  venerable  origin  and  perennial  usage,  was,  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  an  adjunct  to  the  operatic  orchestra  only,  for  histrionic  effects 
and  historic  representations. 

The  scores  of  no  other  composer  can  be  more  profitably  studied  than  those 
of  Beethoven,  and  a  high  percentage  of  the  examples  set  forth  in  all  stand- 
ard treatises  on  instrumentation  are  drawn  from  his  works.  Apart  from  the  fact 
that  his  orchestration  not  only  embodied  but  improved  upon  and  matured  the 
orthodox  style  of  writing  as  bequeathed  to  him  by  Haydn  and  Mozart,  his  pages 
abound  in  daring  innovations,  bold  and  startling;  in  subtle  combinations,  delicate 
and  pathetic;  a  kaleidoscope  of  sequent  effects  now  contemplative  and  restful,  now 
tender  and  languishing,  impetuous  and  fiery,  at  times  even  jocose,  weird,  bizarre. 
And  throughout  is  manifested  the  depth  of  his  nature,  the  nobility  of  his  purpose. 

In  writing  for  the  strings,  Beethoven  attained  a  degree  of  excellence  that  has 
never  been  surpassed.  He  fulfilled  every  requirement,  whether  of  solidity, 
sonority,  flexibility,  or  delicacy.  ^^^  With  bold  and  vigorous  strokes,  he  infused 
warmth  and  increased  vitality  into  the  inner  and  lower  voices,  and  the  quartet 
being  thereby  more  closely  knit  together,  the  resultant  effect  was  that  of  breadth 
and    power.      He    was    the    first    to    carry    the    orchestral    violins    into    the 

(a)  Ex.  30,  31,  33. 


56  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


ethereal  domain  of  their  highest  range  in  the  overture  to  "Egmont."  Incom- 
parable is  the  boisterous  string  passage  toward  the  close  of  the  "Leonora"  Over- 
ture, No.  3,  as  well  as  the  fughetta  in  the  Scherzo  of  the  Fifth  Symphony,  where 
the  double-basses  are  for  the  first  time  allowed  unfettered  license.  ^^^  Finally, 
Beethoven  elevated  the  violoncello  once  for  all  to  its  proper  sphere  as  an  emotional 
and  heroic  interpreter,  of  which  the  C  minor  Symphony  affords  a  favorite  example 
in  that  the  'cellos,  assisted  by  the  violas,  usher  in  the  opening  theme  of  the  slow 
movement.  ("^  The  violas  likewise  gained  in  individuality,  and  in  the  last  move- 
ment of  the  Ninth  Symphony  even  divided  viola  parts  are  to  be  found. 

Beethoven  was  especially  happy  in  discovering  the  ideal  potentialities  of  the 
wood-wind,  and  from  him  originated  the  practice  of  reuniting  the  higher  species 
both  in  contrasting  and  amalgamating  choirs.  ^^'^  No  better  model  for  successful 
flute  writing  can  be  cited  than  that  in  the  Allegro  of  the  "Leonora"  Overture, 
No.  3 ;  and  the  genial  attributes  of  the  oboe  which,  though  latent,  had  never  before 
been  exposed,  are  fittingly  treated  in  the  scherzos  of  the  Pastoral  and  Choral 
symphonies.  The  clarinet  was  now  a  regularly  constituted  member  of  the 
orchestra,  and  specimens  of  characteristic  writing  for  it  are  to  be  found  in  the 
slow  movements  of  the  symphonies  in  B  flat  and  A,  and  also  in  the  Finale  of 
the  "  Eroica,"  where  a  judicious  introduction  of  clarinet  arpeggios  lends  warmth 
and  color  to  the  Melos. 

Perhaps  no  other  orchestral  instrument  received  more  careful  consideration 
from  Beethoven  than  the  bassoon,  and  his  partiality  for  it  resulted  in  detaching 
it  from  its  former  subservient  position  as  bass  for  the  wood  and  horns, 
and  elevating  it  to  the  dignity  of  an  equal  associate  to  the  remaining  wood- wind, 
with  especial  regard  for  the  quality  of  its  tenor  range.  ^^^  Thus  Beethoven  evinced 
a  peculiar  predilection  for  redoubling  a  melody,  assigned  either  to  violins  or  to 
an  instrument  of  wood,  with  a  bassoon  in  the  sub-octave.  Again,  he  recognized 
its  sustaining  powers  as  independent  bass,  provided  the  balance  of  the  instruments 
to  be  sustained  were  nicely  adjusted.  Gevaert  calls  attention  to  just  such  a 
combination  in  "Egmont,"  where  one  bassoon  acts  as  bass  to  the  strings  while 
the  'cellos  and  double-basses  occasionally  assist.  And,  as  he  further  remarks, 
the  choice  was  admirable,  for  no  other  instrument,  as,  for  instance,  the  horn, 
would  have  been  suitable.  Consistent  with  his  sentient  appreciation  for  the 
bassoon,  Beethoven  rescued  the  double-bassoon  ^^'>  from  comparative  obscurity,  and 
although  he  employed  it  invariably  as  a  reduplication  of  the  'cellos  and  basses,  it 
was  awarded  a  more  conspicuous  role  in  "Fidelio"  than  in  the  C  minor  Symphony. 

Classic  conservatism  in  the  use  of  the  brass  found  no  exception  even  when 
consigned  to   Beethoven's  inspired  pen  other  than  the  previously    mentioned 

(b)  Ex.  27.  (c)  Ex.  24.  (d)  Ex.  25,  28,  34. 

(e)  Ex.  26,  31.  (I)  Ex.  30. 


HAYDN,    MOZART,    AND    BEETHOVEN  57 

augmentation  of  horn  parts  and  the  more  frequent  requisition  for  trombones. 
His  horn  writing  ^^^  followed  that  of  Mozart,  but  his  style  was  freer,  bolder,  and 
the  results  more  resonant,  especially  in  such  passages  as  the  familiar  jubilant  fan- 
fare in  the  Scherzo  of  the  "Eroica"  and  again  in  the  Scherzo  of  the  "Pastoral." 
On  the  other  hand,  the  decidedly  primitive  functions  of  the  trumpets  ^^^ 
were  in  no  wise  ameliorated,  an  incident  that  is  largely  to  be  accounted  for 
by  the  mechanical  limitations  of  the  instrument  which  still  existed  at  that  day. 
As  for  the  trombones,  to  have  drawn  upon  them  merely  for  increase  of  volume, 
would  have  been  contrary  to  the  ethics  of  Beethoven's  artistic  creed.  The  fact 
that  they  did  add  sonority  was  therefore  but  a  subsidiary  issue,  and  in  climaxes 
such  as  the  Finale  of  the  Fifth  Symphony,  their  mission  was  primarily  that  of 
lending  grandeur  and  richness  to  the  final  scintillating  tableau.  ^^ 

In  conclusion,  the  kettle-drums  must  receive  especial  mention.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  as  yet  but  passing  reference  to  them  has  been  made  in  these  pages, 
for  it  was  left  to  Beethoven  to  discover  their  genuinely  tragic  resources.  He  not 
only  enlarged  the  scope  of  the  instruments  by  having  them  tuned  to  intervals  other 
than  the  conventional  and  stereotyped  fourth  and  fifth,  but  gave  them  expressive 
powers  such  as  had  never  been  attained  before.  Consequently  there  was  added 
to  the  orchestra  a  practically  new  member,  since  he  caused  the  tympani  to  respond 
to  his  dictates,  as  it  were,  with  warm  and  throbbing  pulse-beats,  at  times  permeat- 
ing, dominating,  subduing  the  entire  orchestral  color-scheme.  Striking  illustra- 
tions of  this  latent  power  are  to  be  found  in  the  third  movement  of  the  C  minor 
Symphony  ^J^  and  the  Finale  of  the  Pianoforte  Concerto  in  E  flat;  likewise  in  the 
Finale  of  the  Eighth  and  the  Scherzo  of  the  Ninth  symphonies,  in  both  of  which 
they  are  tuned  in  octaves;  and  in  the  introduction  to  the  second  act  of  "Fidelio," 
where  they  are  tuned  to  the  interval  of  the  diminished  fifth.  Further  specimens 
of  specifically  solo  writing  will  be  recalled  in  the  Adagio  of  the  B  flat  Symphony, 
the  beginning  of  the  Violin  Concerto, and  the  introduction  to  the"  Mount  of  Olives." 

A  discussion  of  Beethoven's  titanic  achievements,  even  if  confined  to  his 
orchestral  writings,  is  prone  to  lead  the  student  into  so  deep  a  maze  of  absorbing 
illustrations  of  his  genius,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  find  an  arbitrary  stopping 
place.  Therefore  this  review  may  be  tersely  summed  up  by  saying  that  the  culmi- 
nation of  classic  purity,  the  subordination  to  human  feeling  of  purely  formal  struc- 
ture and  sensuous  tone-effect,  and  a  systematic  development  of  descriptive 
music,  are  the  essentials  of  Beethoven's  creations.  His  orchestration  stands  as 
a  model  for  all  time.  He  is  the  connecting  link  between  the  classicists  and  the 
romanticists.  And  in  a  word,  the  consummation  of  his  artistic  striving  was 
freedom  and  spirituality. 

(Summary  on  page  68.) 
(g)  Ex.  30,  32,  35.         (b)  Ex.  30.         (i)  Ex.  30.  (i)    Ex.  29. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE  CONTEMPORARIES  OF  BEETHOVEN. 

L 

The  career  of  Beethoven,  extending  well  into  the  nineteenth  century,  overlaps 
the  rise  and  growth  of  the  Romantic  Movement,  —  a  movement  that  embodied 
tendencies  with  which  his  later  works  show  sympathetic  accord.  The  authors 
of  this  new  departure  were  instigated  by  poetic  aspirations  closely  allied  to  those 
of  Beethoven;  and  since  his  creative  horizon  was  constantly  expanding,  the 
idealistic  texture  of  his  productions  and  theirs  was  harmoniously  interwoven. 
But  while  the  scope  of  German  art  was  being  assimilated  into  channels  of  which 
the  objective  was  natural  emotion  so  expressed  as  to  be  portrayed  in  tangible 
form,  Rossini's  seductive  charm  had  hypnotized  all  Europe,  with  the  result  that 
the  progress  even  of  Beethoven  was  momentarily  hampered  and  his  immediate 
reputation  eclipsed.  Therefore  before  proceeding  to  a  further  analysis  of 
orchestration  as  advanced  by  the  exponents  of  the  Romantic  Movement  with 
which  all  prominent  German  composers  after  Beethoven  are  to  be  more  or  less 
conspicuously  identified,  a  final  bird's-eye  view  of  musical  activity  in  other 
countries  will  properly  conclude  the  history  of  the  so-called  classic  era.  To  do 
this  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  up  again  the  thread  of  dramatic  development  which 
we  have  already  traced  as  far  as  Gretry,  in  whom  the  first  period  of  opera  comique 
may  be  said  to  have  culminated.  Moreover  for  the  sake  of  continuity,  this  discus- 
sion may  well  include  such  of  the  nineteenth  century  composers  as  were  not 
noticeably  afifected  by  the  magnetism  of  the  romanticists  or  of  the  sequent  "New 
Movement."  And  the  preferential  arena  for  the  reproduction  of  both  French 
and  Italian  works  was  still  the  Parisian  stage,  in  which  was  vested  the  dangerous 
power  of  passing  conclusive  judgment  upon  the  offerings  of  her  votaries.  Conse- 
quently, the  characteristics  of  such  luminaries  as  were  deemed  worthy  of  her 
benisons  can  be  briefly  summed  up  without  regard  to  nationality;  and  these 
meteor-like  apparitions  captivated  in  turn  the  entire  musical  world,  to  the  neglect 
of  the  worthier  creations  of  Gluck  and  Mozart. 

The  lyric  genre  as  bequeathed  by  Grdtry  was  ardently  cultivated  by  a  series 
of  sturdy  exponents  including  his  contemporary  of  evanescent  fame  d'Alayrac, 
followed  by  Boieldieu,  Isouard,  a  native  of  Malta,  the  long-hved  Auber,  Herold, 

58 


THE    CONTEMPORARIES    OF    BEETHOVEN  59 

Hal^vy,  Adam.  All  but  the  last  of  these  were  bom  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
eighteenth  centur>',  being,  together  with  the  domiciliated  Isouard,  typical  French- 
men, devoted  to  national  tradition,  style  of  writing,  and  methods  of  instrumen- 
tation. And  conspicuously  through  the  collective  efforts  of  Boieldieu,  Auber 
and  Herold  was  the  standard  of  opera  comique  elevated  to  high  dignity.  This 
exclusive  aggrandizement  of  the  lyric  stage  by  native  composers  affords  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  history  of  opera  in  serious  vein.  For  in  reference  to  the  latter, 
the  attitude  of  the  pubhc  was  marked  by  illogical  preferentiation,  in  consequence 
of  which  their  vacillating  plaudits  were  bestowed  with  but  scant  discrimination. 
True,  French  composers  at  first  tenaciously  held  their  own,  as  exemplified  by  the 
sterling  achievements  of  Mehul  (1763)  and  by  the  fleeting  triumphs  of  his  contem- 
poraries, Lesueur,  Berton,  Catel.  Nor  did  subsequently  the  more  important 
representatives  of  the  lyric  style  such  as  Boieldieu,  Auber  and  Haldvy  allow 
undisputed  sway  to  foreign  interlopers  in  the  field  of  grand  opera.  And 
the  so-called  "historic  school"  of  grand  opera,  first  introduced  by  the  Italian, 
Spontini  (1774),  and  eventually  abused  by  the  German,  Meyerbeer  (1791),  was 
admirably  exploited  by  Auber's  "La  Muette  di  Portici,"  which  was  produced 
the  year  after  Beethoven's  death.  This  work  directly  paved  the  way  for  "Guil- 
laume  Tell,"  the  crowning  achievement  of  Rossini  (1797),  as  well  as  for  Meyer- 
beer's initiatory  embodiment  of  French  romanticism,  "Robert  le  Diable." 
Sequent  to  the  baneful  revival  by  Rossini  of  more  or  less  retrogressional  Italian 
opera  appeared  the  mellifluous  fabrications  of  Donizetti  (1797)  and  of  Bellini 
(1802),  with  which  undramatic  productions  must  be  classed  also  the  earlier 
works  of  Verdi  (1813)  in  consequence  of  their  voluptuous  melodic  exuberance. 
In  Germany,  meanwhile,  the  standard  of  opera  in  lighter  vein  was  upheld  by 
Konradin  Kreutzer  (1780),  the  heir  of  Hiller  and  Dittersdorf.  In  England,  the 
pianist,  Field  (1782),  was  initiating  a  new  style  of  writing  for  the  pianoforte  that 
was  to  serve  as  a  model  for  Chopin. 

n. 

It  is  proper  that  the  compositions  of  Cherubini  (i  760-1842)  be  treated 
apart  from  those  of  his  contemporaries,  for  they  are  in  many  respects  distinct  by 
themselves.  The  fact  that  he  was  bom  in  Italy  bears  little  relation  to  the  style 
of  his  productions,  for  only  in  his  earlier  works  are  Italian  methods  particularly 
noticeable.  The  name  of  Chembini  has  become  immortal  chiefly  on  account  of 
his  church  music,  of  which  he  is  the  first  tmly  great  modem  master.  Nor  must 
his  permanent  influence  upon  the  form  of  French  opera  be  underestimated,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  his  own  operas  were  only  moderately  successful.  For 
the  Gluck-Piccini  controversy  impressed  him  deeply;  moreover,  Mozart's  operas 


6o  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

were  at  that  time  already  exciting  world-wide  admiration.  As  a  result  of  these 
powerful  influences,  Cherubini  was  led  to  combine  both  the  German  and  the 
French  styles,  as  exemphfied  in  "Lodoiska";  and  henceforth  the  drama  of  France 
may  be  said  to  have  acquired  permanent  and  definite  form. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  his  church  music  consist  of  a  fusion  of  the  elevated 
style  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  severe  yet  masterly  contrapuntal  treatment,  and 
withal  a  remarkable  clearness  in  form  and  details.  These  models  of  sacred 
writing  which  belong,  perhaps,  more  particularly  to  the  French  school,  are  con- 
vincing proof  that  so-called  antiquated  principles  can  be  assimilated  into  modem 
methods.  Lavoix  calls  attention  to  the  criticism  that  whereas  Cherubini's 
operas  were  not  sufficiently  dramatic,  his  church  music  was  too  much  so.  This 
may  be  true;  but  the  purity  and  nobility  of  subject-matter,  the  warmth  and 
breadth  in  instrumentation,   counteract  any  possible  theatrical  tendencies. 

The  orchestra  is  much  used  in  Cherubini's  sacred  works.  The  orchestration 
is  flexible  and  vivid;  each  instrument  is  treated  judiciously,  and  the  tonal  color 
is  ever  sonorous  and  varied.  Prout  refers  to  the  Requiem  in  C  minor  as  being 
a  splendid  piece  of  sombre  tone-painting,  and  masterful  in  its  appropriateness. 
The  opening  chorus  is  remarkable  for  its  pathos,  being  scored  for  divided  violas 
and  'cellos,  double-basses,  two  bassoons,  two  horns  and  muffled  kettle-drums. 
In  the  introduction  to  the  "Chant  sur  la  Mort  de  Joseph  Haydn,"  an  extended 
passage  for  four  violoncellos  con  sordini  proves  that  Rossini  was  not  the  first  to 
discover  the  value  of  their  independent  employment.  In  the  same  work,  one  of 
Wagner's  procedures  in  the  use  of  the  bass-tuba  is  anticipated  in  that  the  ophei- 
cleide  is  detached  from  its  usual  alliance  to  the  trombones,  and  is  employed  alone 
as  a  reduplication  of  the  double-basses.  Cherubini  was  conservative  in  the  use 
of  the  brass,  although  in  isolated  cases,  where  special  effects  were  needed,  larger 
choirs  of  loud-voiced  instruments  are,  of  course,  to  be  found.  As  an  example, 
the  mass  in  A  calls  for  four  horns,  three  trombones,  and  an  opheicleide.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  instrumentation  of  Cherubini's  operas  shows  greater  reserve,  and 
in  one  or  two  cases,  entire  acts  are  effectively  scored  without  once  drawing  upon 
either  trumpets  or  kettle-drums.  It  might  be  added  that  an  interesting  example 
for  English  horn  is  to  be  found  in  "Anacreon";  that  the  instrument  was  as  yet 
but  rarely  heard  in  France  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  Cherubini  felt  it 
necess£iry  to  write  "clarinet  ad  libitum''^  under  the  English  horn  part. 

III. 

Mehul  (1763-1817)  ranks  among  the  greatest  evolutionists  of  French 
instrumentation.  His  talents  developed  at  an  early  age;  his  career  was  one  of 
steady  progress,  and  culminated  in  "Joseph,"  one  of  the  loftiest  dramatic  works 


THE    CONTEMPORARIES    OF    BEETHOVEN  6i 

France  possesses.  Following  in  Gluck's  footsteps,  he  emphasized  the  value 
of  declamation  and  made  much  use  of  melodrama.  The  operatic  overtures  also 
were  carefully  developed.  Although  his  orchestration  was  somewhat  heavy,  and 
embodied  the  frequent  repetition  of  certain  stereotyped  formulas,  he  proved  him- 
self a  worthy  successor  to  Gluck  in  the  successful  portrayal  of  dramatic  personages 
by  means  of  instrumental  expression.  Much  of  his  music  is  decidedly  picturesque 
even  though  his  instrumentation  is  lacking  in  daintiness.  The  distinctive  features 
of  Mehul's  orchestration  are  sonority,  novel  combinations,  and  at  times  a  certain 
melancholy  coloring.  The  earliest  use  of  low  string  effects  is  attributed  to  him, 
and  especial  prominence  was  given  to  the  viola.  As  is  well  known,  his  opera 
"Uthal"  is  unique  in  that  violins  are  absent  throughout  the  entire  work.  The 
harp  is  an  important  factor  in  both  "Uthal"  and  "Joseph."  Mdhul  showed 
considerable  partiality  for  the  brass,  and  more  than  once,  four  horn  parts  are  to 
be  found  in  his  scores. 

Lesueur  (1763)  has  been  called  the  predecessor  of  Berlioz  as  an  exponent 
of  "program"  music.  He  was  fond  of  grand  and  majestic  combinations,  but 
was  artistically  more  successful  in  writing  for  the  church  than  for  the  drama. 
He  was  fortunate  in  having  under  his  control  a  large  orchestra  at  the  Notre 
Dame,  and  his  contributions  to  French  instrumentation  in  detail  are  important. 
He  frequently  multiplied  the  violin  parts  into  four,  and  even  divided  the  violas. 
Again,  the  violins  were  at  times  omitted,  although  he  did  not  go  to  the  extent  of 
leaving  them  out  through  an  entire  work  as  Mehul  did  in  his  opera  "Uthal." 
Lesueur  may  have  indirectly  influenced  Wagner's  scoring  of  the  tetralogy  in 
that  twelve  harps,  divided  into  two  sections,  are  required  for  a  faithful  rendition 
of  "Les  Bardes,"  and  in  a  footnote  he  specifically  exacts  a  predominance  of 
harp  quality  of  tone.  Like  many  of  his  subsequent  compatriots,  he  frequently 
made  requisition  for  curious  instruments  of  percussion. 

IV. 

In  turning  to  the  works  of  Boieldieu  (1775-1834),  we  find  therein  a 
refreshing  example  of  naivete,  spontaneous  originality,  and  flowing  melody. 
Italian  tendencies  are  noticeable,  but  the  style  remains  pure  and  distinctly  French. 
Though  "La  Dame  Blanche"  does  not  contain  the  attributes  of  profoimd  scholar- 
ship, it  satisfies  in  fuU  the  requirements  of  refined  and  poetic  French  comedy. 
Schumann  regarded  some  of  Boieldieu's  creations  as  the  representative  comic 
operas  of  the  world.  His  orchestra  is  not  large  and  it  is  rarely  used  in  its  entire 
strength.  The  key-note  is  dainty  scoring;  the  singing  can  always  be  distinctly 
heard,  and  although  few  novel  effects  of  instrumentation  are  to  be  noted,  variety 
and  contrast  of  tone  are  constantly  to  be  met  with.    The  accompaniment  is  ever 


62  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

appropriate,  and  especially  the  clarinet  and  horns  receive  characteristic  treatment. 
Moderation  in  the  use  of  the  brass  was  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  trombones 
are  frequently  omitted  altogether,  and  even  in  "La  Dame  Blanche"  only  one  was 
employed.     In  one  opera  not  even  trumpets  and  kettle-drums  are  to  be  found. 

The  founder  of  the  lyric  drama  in  the  modem  sense  was  Auber  (1782-1871). 
The  pillars  of  modern  lyric  drama  are  genuine  dramatic  expression,  varied 
resources,  and  extensive  proportions.  Add  to  these  charming  melody,  sparkling 
instrumentation  and  piquant  coloring,  and  we  have  the  sum  total  of  Auber 's  crea- 
tions. He  was,  perhaps,  the  most  typically  French  composer  that  ever  lived, 
and  yet  his  orchestration  is  not  that  of  an  innovator.  He  accepted  the  already 
existing  French  and  Italian  characteristics  of  instrumentation,  but  adapted  them 
to  the  needs  of  his  poetic  instincts.  The  functions  of  his  orchestra  are  essentially 
those  of  accompaniment,  and  the  dramatic  situations  are  lightly  sketched  rather 
than  elaborately  portrayed.  And  this  lightness  of  touch,  together  with  grace  and 
elegance,  is  already  to  be  found  in  "La  Muette  de  Portici,"  as  well  as  in  the  more 
popular  "Fra  Diavolo." 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Auber's  orchestra  presents  nothing  actually  new,  the 
charm  of  his  instrumentation  has  exerted  great  influence  upon  that  art  in  France. 
When  the  full  orchestra  is  employed,  the  effect  is  sonorous  without  being  noisy, 
ever  clear  yet  scintillating.  For  more  subdued  effects,  Auber  was  especially 
happy  in  the  choice  of  mixed  tonal  tints,  such  as  the  reduplication,  by  a  piccolo 
flute  in  the  octave,  of  a  melody  given  to  one  of  the  wood-instruments.  Moreover, 
he  was  the  first  to  employ  the  piccolo  in  piano  passages.  And  whether  reference 
be  made  to  his  use  of  soft  chords  for  the  trombones,  or  to  his  dainty  triangle 
effects,  —  these  are  but  a  suggestion  of  the  many  characteristic  insignia  that 
distinguished  his  sterlmg  achievements. 

The  operas  of  Herold  (1791)  contain  strong  expressive  and  dramatic  attri- 
butes. His  form  and  instrumentation  show  German  rather  than  Italian  influence, 
modified  withal  by  unquestionable  French  coloring.  The  impress  of  "Don  Juan'* 
and  of  "  Freischiitz "  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  overture  to  "  Zampa,"  his 
representative  work;  three  principal  themes  from  the  opera  itself  are  more  or 
less  scientifically  developed,  and  the  manner  of  writing  for  certain  wind  instru- 
ments like  the  clarinet  in  some  ways  resembles  that  of  Weber.  Although 
Harold's  orchestration  does  not  embody  that  transparency  and  that  grace  which 
characterize  the  scores  of  Auber,  it  is  more  compact,  and  his  accompaniments 
conform  to  the  demands  of  the  dramatic  situation.  He  occupied  himself  also  with 
chamber  music  and  concert  overtures,  which  are  superior  in  form  to  many 
similar  efforts  of  prominent  contemporary  French  writers,  even  though  they  are 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  German  models. 

The  works  of    Halevy  (1799)  present  a  perplexing    composite  of    genuine 


THE    CONTEMPORARIES    OF    BEETHOVEN  63 

art  and  sensational  trivialities.  Frequently  carried  away  by  desire  for  pomp 
and  effervescent  personal  glory,  he  nevertheless  gave  the  art  of  dramatic  scoring 
a  powerful  impetus  toward  modem  methods.  His  instrumentation  is  often  like 
Meyerbeer's,  and  Rossinian  tendencies  are  apparent  as  well.  Nevertheless,  his 
pages  are  imbued  with  his  own  individuality.  Each  instrument  received  charac- 
teristic treatment  when  not  used  in  massed  harmonic  combinations.  The  strings 
were  employed  with  much  skill  and  variety,  as  exemplified,  for  instance,  by 
phrases  for  violins  alone  in  four  parts,  or  for  solo  'cellos  in  five  parts.  The  former 
idea  bears  the  germ  of  Wagner's  subsequent  ethereal  string  passages,  whereas 
the  latter  corresponds  to  Rossini's  familiar  'cello  scoring  in  "Guillaume  TeU." 
The  wood-wind  played  an  important  part  as  dramatic  interpreter,  with  especial 
attention  to  the  expressive  characteristics  of  the  English  horn  and  the  clarinet. 
Above  all,  Halevy  was  an  untiring  advocate  in  behalf  of  improving  and  supple- 
menting both  the  variety  and  functions  of  the  brass,  and  was  strongly  in  support 
of  the  newly  invented  instruments  of  Sax.  As  components  of  the  orchestra  proper, 
they  were  not  used  aggressively,  although,  of  course,  when  they  appeared  as  an 
independent  cohort  upon  the  stage  itself,  their  united  efforts  inclined  toward  the 
bombastic.  Halevy  was  among  the  first  to  employ  a  second  couplet  of  valve 
horns  in  addition  to  the  customary  natural  horns,  and  the  manner  of  writing  for 
them  displays  a  marked  departure  from  previous  usage.  Besides  absorbing 
into  the  orchestra  proper  different  varieties  of  sax-horns  and  especially  the  sax- 
tuba,  he  employed  at  times  as  many  as  eight  trumpets.  A  part  for  a  soprano 
trombone  is  likewise  to  be  found  in  one  of  his  scores.  "La  Juive"  is  the  embodi- 
ment of  Halevy's  higher  ideals  and  novel  orchestral  combinations,  and  among 
other  interesting  details  of  instrumentation,  the  employment  of  two  English 
horns,  the  trombone  solo  in  the  fourth  act,  and  the  semi-military  band  on  the 
stage  will  readily  be  recalled. 

V. 

Brief  mention  is  due  to  the  "historic  school"  which  found  its  first  exponent 
in  Spontini  (i  774-1851).  The  tenets  of  this  school  were  in  sympathetic 
accord  with  the  general  desire  for  pomp  attendant  upon  the  ascendency  of 
Napoleonic  imperiaHsm.  And  Spontini's  masterpiece  "La  Vestale"  entirely 
satisfied  these  demands.  For  in  spite  of  many  glaring  defects,  it  is  a  worthy 
example  of  superb  dramatic  power.  In  this  work,  a  new  style  of  orchestration 
was  inaugurated,  one  that  has  been  more  or  less  imitated  by  all  French  writers 
since  his  time.  Spontini  transplanted  into  serious  opera  a  principle  with  which 
already  Piccini  and  Paesiello  had  experimented  in  their  lighter  operas,  in  that, 
for  the  description  of  certain  picturesque  episodes,  the  orchestra  appears  as  chief 
exponent,  the  voice  as  secondary. 


64  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Entirely  new  was  the  amalgamation  of  the  whole  orchestra  into  one  mighty 
organism  by  means  of  doubling  and  redoubling  each  part,  similar  to  the  practice 
of  adding  the  four-  and  two-foot  stops  in  organ  playing.  Each  of  the  three 
choirs  is  harmonically  complete  by  itself;  being  absorbed  into  the  general  Melos, 
it  is,  of  course,  impossible  for  the  ear  to  analyze  the  combined  tone-color. 
Such  massive  tonal  edifices  are  the  embodiment  of  unity  and  sonority,  but  there 
is  danger  of  monotony,  and,  as  Gevaert  remarks,  this  method  of  orchestration 
was  subsequently  abused  by  Rossini.  Spontini's  style  embodies  much  that  is 
German,  and  his  mastery  of  brilliant  efifects  is  unrivalled.  And  although  he 
frequently  lowered  the  standard  of  his  works  by  a  craving  for  ostentation,  the 
details  are  carefully  worked  out  and  the  orchestration  is  rich  and  manly. 

With  the  advent  of  Rossini  (i 792-1868),  the  triumph  of  Italian  aria  was 
resumed.  His  operas  are  the  embodiment  of  Italian  emotionalism.  But  although 
much  of  his  music  must  be  condemned  as  entirely  irrelevant  to  the  demands  of 
the  dramatic  situation  or  of  the  sentiment  to  be  expressed,  his  orchestration  was 
certainly  an  advance  upon  antecedent  Italian  methods.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  but  few  new  features  in  his  instrumentation;  this  consisted  of  certain 
restricted  and  oft-repeated  formulas,  of  which,  however,  Rossini  had  perfect 
command.  His  crowning  achievement  was,  of  course,  "  GuiUaume  Tell."  Here 
the  orchestration  plainly  betrays  a  happy  fusion  of  Italian  and  French  styles. 
The  string  writing  is  full  of  life ;  due  regard  is  shown  to  the  wind  instruments,  and 
efifective  solos  are  assigned  more  particularly  to  the  English  horn  and  the  French 
horns.  The  improvements  that  Rossini  made  in  horn  writing  were  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  his  father  was  a  horn  player.  Parenthetically,  the  same  state- 
ment might  be  made  in  reference  to  Richard  Strauss.  It  is  also  interesting  to 
note  in  passing  that  Rossini  used  two  batons  in  conducting,  —  a  short  one  for 
arias  and  a  long  one  for  ensemble. 

VI. 

At  this  point  it  is  fitting  that  we  examine  the  dazzling  orchestration 
of  Meyerbeer  (1791-1861),  for  his  career  is,  of  course,  inseparably  allied 
with  the  evolution  of  French  opera.  As  the  most  famous  representative  of  French 
romantic  and  historic  grand  opera,  Meyerbeer  would  appear,  at  first  sight,  to 
have  embraced  in  his  operas  every  conceivable  meretricious  device  for  the  sensa- 
tional and  the  spectacular.  He  was  above  all  an  eclectic,  modelling  his  works 
largely  after  those  of  Spontini,  being  likewise  strongly  influenced  by  Weber, 
combining  German  harmony,  Italian  melody,  and  French  rhythm.  His  was  a 
marked  departure  from  the  school  of  Gluck  —  so  much  so,  that  he  has  been 
accused  of  "playing  with  dynamic  efifects"  and  writing  "hollow"  music  that 


THE    CONTEMPORARIES    OF    BEETHOVEN  65 

cannot  withstand  aesthetic  analysis.  In  a  large  measure  such  censure  is  merited, 
but  it  is  manifestly  an  error  in  judgment  to  declare  as  one  writer  does  that  his 
productions  are  comprised  of  but  "dazzling  efifects,  glaring  contrasts,  and  clever 
instrumental  devices."  True,  the  contents  of  his  operas  are  certainly  an  alter- 
nating mixture  of  the  grandiose  and  the  paltry,  but  as  for  orchestration,  none 
have  surpassed  him  in  judicious  distribution  of  sonorous  masses,  in  forceful 
dramatic  effects,  richness  of  details,  and  successful  application  of  the  individual 
characteristics  of  each  instrument.  Again,  the  consistent  recurrence  of  a  specijSc 
tone-color  as  the  annotator  to  a  dramatic  personage  contains  the  germ  of  the 
Leit-motiv.  And  for  ever  varying  resource  of  instrumentation  few  can  excel  him! 
And  no  composer  before  him  was  his  peer  as  a  dramatic  painter. 

Meyerbeer  of  course  relied  primarily  upon  the  strings  as  the  basis  of  his 
orchestra,  but  they  are  frequently  replaced  by  independent  combinations  of  wind 
instruments.  In  this  connection,  it  is  worthy  of  especial  note  that  complete 
groups  of  kindred  instruments  are  employed  alone,  and  almost  invariably  in 
complete  four  part  harmony.  Meyerbeer's  scoring  for  full  orchestra  was  practi- 
cally identical  with  Spontini's ;  each  group  is  again  complete  in  four  part  harmony, 
doubled  and  redoubled  in  the  octave.  Though  his  accompaniments  are  heavy, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  voice  is  usually  supported  by  a  solo  instrument.  He 
developed  great  variety  in  string  writing.  The  violins  and  violoncellos  are 
frequently  subdivided  into  numerous  parts.  The  characteristics  of  high  violins 
and  again  of  low  double-basses  soli  are  brought  into  prominence.  Passages  are  to 
be  found  in  which  parts  of  the  strings  are  muted  while  the  remainder  are  simul- 
taneously employed  without  mutes.  The  viola  d'amore  is  carefully  treated,  as,  for 
instance,  in  Raoul's  Romance  in  the  first  act  of  "  Les  Huguenots."  The  harp 
is  used  extensively,  both  in  arpeggios  and  in  broad  chords.  The  English 
horn  and  bass-clarinet  are  constantly  used  as  regular  constituents  of  the  secondary 
group,  and  the  latent  dramatic  powers  of  the  clarinet  are  intensified;  again, 
every  one  is  familiar  with  the  earliest  of  bass-clarinet  solos  in  "Les  Huguenots." 
Apart  from  more  conmion  methods  of  employing  the  wood-wind  group  by  itself, 
Meyerbeer  was  fond  of  peculiar  combinations  such  as  piccolo  flute  and  English 
horn,  or  bass-clarinet  and  trumpet  an  octave  apart.  Further  entirely  novel 
combinations  are  the  assignment  of  a  melody  to  the  English  horn  and  bass-clarinet 
in  unison,  or  the  redoubling  of  the  violoncellos  by  a  flute  two  octaves 
above.  Great  variety  in  mixed  tints  is  to  be  found.  The  most  cormnon  is  the 
combination  in  solo  passages  of  violoncello  and  bassoon;  more  complex  is  the 
imion  of  violins,  tremolo,  together  with  three  flutes,  all  in  the  high  range,  while 
an  English  horn  or  a  bass-clarinet  produces  the  melody  below.  Or  two  clarinets 
and  two  bass-clarinets  are  united  to  violoncellos  in  three-part  writing.  One  of 
Meyerbeer's  chief  contributions  to  instrumentation  lay  in  his  methods  of  scoring 


66  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

for  the  brass.  In  "Les  Huguenots"  a  veritable  military  band  is  introduced  upon 
the  stage;  the  band  includes  both  reeds  and  brass  —  likewise  piccolo  flutes.  And 
the  newly  invented  sax-horns  were  drawn  into  requisition  for  "Le  Prophfete." 
The  kettle-drums  acquired  greater  freedom  than  even  Beethoven  had  allowed 
them,  and  "Robert  le  Diable"  contains  actual  solos  for  the  instruments.  In 
different  works,  as  many  as  three  and  four  kettle-drums  were  employed.  In 
conclusion,  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  the  realistic  impression  provoked  by 
the  sounding  of  a  gong  in  connection  with  the  Resurrection  of  the  Nuns  in  "  Robert 
le  Diable" ;  nor  need  the  reader  be  reminded  of  the  deep-toned  bell  used  for  the 
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  in  "Les  Huguenots."  All  in  all,  though  Meyer- 
beer's scoring  is  frequently  brutal,  it  is  intensely  dramatic  and  original. 

VII. 

We  have  now  traced  the  wonderful  growth  of  orchestration  through  the  entire 
eighteenth  century  and  well  into  the  nineteenth.  And  the  contributions  thereto 
by  the  great  Italian  and  French  masters  are  by  no  means  to  be  underestimated 
even  though  the  German  classicists  tower  above  them.  A  final  summing  up  of 
their  general  methods  of  instrumentation  will  properly  conclude  this  chapter. 

The  classic  symphony  realizes  its  principal  effects  from  the  dialogue  of  instru- 
ments rather  than  from  their  collective  forces.  The  primary  object  was  clearness 
of  polyphonic  design,  and  since  clearness  of  detail  does  not  admit  of  great  force, 
the  first  and  second  orchestral  groups  were  rarely  united  other  than  in  jorte 
passages. 

When  examining  the  scores  of  the  classics,  it  is  important  to  keep  in  mind 
that  in  their  day  the  numerical  distribution  of  the  string  band  was  limited. 
Therefore  force  and  volume  of  tone  could  only  be  obtained  by  keeping  the  inter- 
mediate and  lower  parts  constantly  in  motion.  Particularly  the  violas  were 
inadequately  represented,  and  it  will  be  found  that  any  important  viola  melody 
was  almost  invariably  doubled  by  some  other  instrument. 

The  classic  use  of  the  flute  for  tuttis  was  generally  like  that  of  a  four-foot  organ 
stop.  Many  of  the  earlier  functions  of  the  oboe  gradually  passed  to  the  more 
responsive  clarinet.  But  the  frequent  employment  of  divided  violas  as  auxiliary 
to  the  wind  was  due  to  the  former  absence  of  adequate  contralto  wind 
instruments. 

The  larger  symphonic  orchestra  of  Haydn,  Mozart  and  Beethoven  added 
two  trumpets  to  the  third  group,  acquiring  thereby  a  feminine  metallic  diapason 
capable  of  masculine  energy.  In  the  exposition  of  their  symphonies,  the  classi- 
cists usually  gave  the  first  theme  to  the  strings,  the  second  to  the  wood.  The 
brass  was  reserved  for  climaxes,  and  the  trumpets  entered  last.     But  the  limita- 


THE    CONTEMPORARIES    OF    BEETHOVEN  67 

tion  of  the  "natural"  trumpet  was  detrimental  for  employing  it  with  invariable 
symmetry  in  the  recurrence  of  thematic  design.  In  employing  the  full  orchestra, 
held  chords  were  assigned  to  the  second  group  as  a  support  to  the  strings,  whereas 
the  third  group  added  short  rhythmic  chords. 

Operatic  effects  are  obtained  by  contrast  of  collective  forces  rather  than  by 
detail  of  polyphony.  The  earher  Italian  composers  made  frequent  use  of  loud- 
voiced  instruments.  Their  successors,  however,  learned  to  rely  more  and  more 
upon  the  strings,  so  that  not  until  the  advent  of  Spontini  and  Rossini  were 
the  proper  functions  of  the  brass  or  even  of  the  wood  again  sufficiently  recog- 
nized in  Italy. 

From  Philidor  to  Boieldieu,  French  orchestration  was  still  somewhat  heavy, 
though  of  dramatic  effectiveness.  The  scoring  of  Mehul  and  Lesueur  was 
powerful  and  dignified,  that  of  Boieldieu,  Berton,  Grdtry,  supple  and  dramatic. 
Finally,  in  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  French  orchestration  became 
still  more  varied  and  rich. 

It  is  now  time  to  turn  our  attention  to  the  rise  of  the  Romantic  Movement, 
and  with  this  subject  the  next  chapter  properly  begins. 

(Summary  on  page  69.) 


SUMMARY  OF  PART  II. 

Chapter  V. 

Bach's  orchestration  was  essentially  polyphonic.  He  contrasted  his  differentiated  groups 
of  instruments  en  masse,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  effective  orchestral  solo  writing. 

Haitoel  represents  solidity  and  sonority,  and  obtained  the  best  results  when  employing 
the  orchestra  for  massed  effects  in  conjunction  with  the  chorus. 

Bach's  contemporaries  in  Italy  were  engaged  in  composing  church  music  and  in  writing 
operas  that  should  satisfy  the  existing  demands  for  vocal  virtuosity.  With  few  exceptions,  they 
did  little  to  advance  the  standard  of  instrumentation,  although  Pergolesi's  writing  for  string 
orchestra  was  progressive. 

In  Germany,  regard  for  Italian  opera  was  fostered  by  establishing  a  permanent  home  for 
it  at  Hamburg;  but  the  evolution  of  orchestration  was  but  little  benefited  thereby.  Em.  Bach 
did  good  service  for  the  cause  of  independent  instrumental  music.  Credit  is  due  to  Hasse  for 
his  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  Dresden  orchestra,  and  Graun  added  his  mite  to  the  development  of 
symphonic  form. 

After  Lulli,  and  before  the  advent  of  Gluck,  Rameau  stands  as  the  exponent  of  French  opera, 
from  which  French  orchestration  was  then  inseparable.  Rameau's  reputation  rests  upon  his 
harmonic  innovations,  the  enhanced  effectiveness  of  his  chorus,  and  his  improved  orchestration. 
Impelled  by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  philosopher,  Rousseau,  a  number  of  composers  paved  the 
way  for  Gr^try  by  dep>arting  from  tradition  and  inaugurating  a  lighter  style,  since  known  as  the 
op&'a  comique. 

Chapter  VI. 

Gluck,  engrossed  in  resuscitating  and  furthering  the  principles  promulgated  by  Peri  and 
Lulli,  used  the  orchestra  primarily  as  a  dramatic  interpreter,  and  his  scoring  is  conspicuous  for 
the  use  of  suitable  instrumentation,  and  for  the  portrayal  of  genuine  pathos. 

At  about  the  time  that  Gluck  captured  the  Parisian  stage,  native  French  music  received 
a  powerful  impulse  from  Gretry,  who  established  opera  comique  upon  a  permanent  basis.  In 
spite  of  this  achievement,  his  contributions  to  orchestration  are  not  important.  Meanwhile, 
Italy  remained  true  to  her  traditions,  both  as  to  form  and  contents  of  opera,  as  well  as  instru- 
mentation. An  exception  is  to  be  foimd  in  the  scores  of  Jomelli.  An  adaptation  of  the  opera 
comique  in  the  garb  of  the  Singspiel  soon  sprang  up  in  Germany. 

The  growth  of  independent  orchestral  music  was  aided  by  such  composers  and  directors 
as  Sammartini,  Gossec,  Gretry,  Stamitz,  and  Cannabich,  being,  moreover,  fostered  by  such 
organizations  as  the  "Concerts  des  Amateurs,"  the  "Concerts  spirituels,"  the  Electoral  band 
at  Mannheim,  the  Leipzig  Gewandhaus,  and  the  Dresden  orchestra. 

Ch.\pter  vn. 

Haydn  was  the  third  great  orchestral  innovator  in  historic  evolution,  and  from  him  date 
the  beginnings  of  modem  orchestration,  just  as  Bach  represents  organ  and  Protestant  Church 
music,  Handel  the  oratorio,  and  Gluck  the  drama.  Monteverde  established  the  precedent  of  a 
nucleus  of  strings,  Scarlatti  adjusted  their  tonal  balance,  but  Haydn  readjusted  the  equilibrium 

68 


SUMMARY  OF  PART  II  69 

of  the  suppletory  segments  of  the  orchestra  as  a  concrete  entity.  His  symphonies  were  the  out- 
come of  the  earlier  concerto  grosso,  and  thus,  having  remained  true  to  the  traditions  of  his  great 
predecessors,  he  became  in  turn  the  pioneer  for  Mozart  and  Beethoven.  In  his  scoring,  the 
wood-wind  acquired  freedom  and  individuahty  as  solo  instruments,  and,  together  with  the  brass, 
were  led  also  to  sustain  and  knit  together  the  harmonic  progressions,  rather  than  merely  to  sup- 
port the  resonance  of  the  strings.  He  emphasized  the  consistent  use  of  wind  instruments  in  pairs. 
Again,  by  exploring  further  their  caloric  capabilities,  he  discovered  effective  means  for  descrip- 
tive music,  and  his  oratorios  bear  the  seed  of  programmatic  writing. 

Mozart  explored  the  resources  of  the  orchestra  as  opened  up  by  Gluck  and  Haydn.  He 
combined  and  interchanged  polyphonic  and  monophonic  style  of  writing  to  a  most  felicitous 
degree.  He  wrote  for  the  strings  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  absolute  independence  and 
stability.  The  wood-wind  gained  in  freedom  of  solo  expression,  and  acquired  that  individuality 
of  treatment  which  was  its  own  by  right.  Especially  the  clarinet  owes  its  absorption  into  the 
orchestra  to  Mozart,  and  from  him  dates  the  genuine  origin  of  varied  and  contrasted  tone- 
coloring. 

The  universal  genius  of  Beethoven,  prompted  by  the  depth  of  his  nature  and  the 
nobility  of  his  purpose,  led  him  to  combine  the  legacy  of  his  predecessors  with  a  more  sensitive 
regard  for  inner  details,  thematic  unity,  emotional  expression,  and  greater  freedom  and  subor- 
dination of  form,  leading  to  expansion  and  programmatic  music.  Greatest  of  classic  orchestral 
masters,  he  brought  the  symphonic  orchestra  to  its  highest  development,  discovered  the  utmost 
capabilities  of  each  and  every  instrument,  increased  the  efficiency  of  both  strings  and  wood-wind, 
and  incidentally  discerned  the  genuine  worth  of  the  violoncellos,  bassoons,  and  kettle-drums. 
The  functions  of  the  horns  likewise  acquired  wider  significance,  and  the  trombones  were  reserved 
for  the  portrayal  of  noble  dignity  and  ornamentation. 

Chapter  VIH. 

During  the  development  of  Beethoven's  mighty  conquests,  Paris  continued  to  attract  aspir- 
ants to  fame  in  operatic  lines,  whereas  modern  church  music  found  a  worthy  representative  in 
Cherubini;  his  orchestration  is  sonorous,  flexible,  varied  and  vivid.  Two  native  composers  of 
opera  in  serious  vein,  Mehul  and  Lesueur,  contributed  essentially  to  the  development  of  French 
instrmnentation.  That  of  Mehul  was  still  somewhat  hea\7,  but  embodied  sonority,  novel  com- 
binations, and  at  times  a  certain  melancholy  coloring.  Lesueur  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the 
use  of  grand  and  majestic  combinations.  The  most  prominent  followers  of  Gretry  in  the  lyric 
genre  were  Boieldieu,  whose  instnmientation  is  conspicuous  for  its  daintiness,  variety  and  con- 
trast; Auber,  master  of  clear  yet  effervescent  scoring;  Herold,  whose  orchestra  is  compact  and 
well  balanced;  finally,  Halevy,  an  exponent  of  both  varied  and  massed  effects.  Italian  instru- 
mentation was  advanced  especially  by  Spontini  and  to  a  certain  extent  by  Rossini;  the  former 
inaugurated  the  practice  of  doubling  and  redoubling  the  harmonies  in  massed  combination. 
French  opera  was  also  greatly  influenced  by  Meyerbeer,  who  imparted  to  the  orchestra  massed 
effects,  novel  and  rich  detail,  characteristic  individuality. 

Credit  for  the  development  and  perfection  of  symphonic  form  and  orchestration  is  due  to 
the  great  German  classicists  alone;  but  the  evolution  of  the  genuinely  dramatic  resources  of  the 
orchestra  rests  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  French  composers  preceding  the  ascendency  of  the 
Romantic  Movement, 


PART    III.  — ROMANTICISM. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

THE  ROMANTIC  SCHOOL. 

A  CONVENIENT  classification  of  the  great  German  composers  of  the  nineteenth 
century  is  to  be  found  in  "Famous  Composers  and  their  Works, "  a  classification 
which  will  be  followed  in  these  chapters.  It  consists  of  three  general  groups: 
"The  Romantic  School,"  "The  Classical  Romanticists,"  and  "The  New  Move- 
ment." As  has  been  already  stated,  the  basis  of  the  Romantic  School  was  simply 
a  further  development  of  Beethoven's  descriptive  writing,  which  created  a 
powerful  impression  upon  the  so-called  founders  of  the  school,  Spohr  and  Weber; 
they  in  turn  were  followed  by  Schubert,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  and  their 
disciples.  The  Classical  Romanticists  accepted  the  substance  of  romanticism  in 
music,  but  remained  more  or  less  true  to  classical  form.  Raff  stands  at  the  head 
of  this  classification,  Brahms  as  its  chief  exponent.  The  New  Movement  dates 
from  the  tumultuous  upheavals  in  the  musical  world  caused  by  the  innovations 
of  Berlioz  in  France,  Liszt  and  Wagner  in  Germany.  The  evolution  of  these 
three  movements  will  now  be  reviewed  in  logical  sequence;  but  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this  evolution  had  already  begun  during  the  later  development  of 
French  and  Italian  opera  as  discussed  in  the  previous  chapter. 


Spohr  (i  784-1859).  The  fruits  of  Spohr's  activity  as  a  composer  present 
a  rather  peculiar  mixture  of  progressive  zeal  and  conventional  mannerism.  He 
was  not  ahve  to  the  true  greatness  of  Beethoven's  genius,  neither  can  he  be  com- 
pared with  Weber  as  a  dramatic  writer.  On  the  other  hand,  Spohr  was  instru- 
mental in  awakening  a  keener  interest  for  the  supernatural,  and  he  aimed  to 
illustrate  certain  definite  ideas  by  means  of  musical  expression.  This  trait  is 
especially  conspicuous  in  his  symphonies;  and  these  entitle  him  to  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  founders  of  programmatic  orchestral  music.  Again,  Spohr  was  one  of 
the  greatest  violinists  of  his  day,  and  as  the  natural  result,  his  writing  for  strings 
was  highly  effective.  Consequently  his  double  string  quartets,  his  octets,  nonets, 
etc.,   are    especially  valued    in    musical    literature.    Spohr   contributed    to    the 

70 


THE    ROMANTIC    SCHOOL  71 

evolution  of  orchestration  proper  but  little  that  was  actually  new.  But  here  again 
the  development  of  violin  technique  stimulated  at  least  a  freer  and  more  elaborate 
manner  of  employing  the  strings.  Prout  suggests  that  his  orchestration  resembles 
to  some  extent  that  of  Mendelssohn,  in  that  the  equilibrium  is  admirably  adjusted; 
and  the  general  color-scheme  is  further  enriched  by  frequent  use  of  soft  harmonies 
for  the  brass.  In  minor  details  of  instrumentation,  Spohr  made  some  interesting 
experiments  similar  to  those  of  Berlioz,  such  as  the  introduction  of  a  number  of 
kettle-drums  mto  the  orchestra.  Prout  also  refers  to  the  earthquake  chorus  in 
"Calvary"  where  six  drums  are  played  upon  by  two  performers,  and  rolls 
in  seconds,  thirds,  and  fifths  for  two  drums  together  are  to  be  found.  But  as  a 
whole,  his  reputation  is  due  chiefly  to  his  great  achievements  as  a  violinist  and 
to  the  incentive  he  gave  to  romanticism  in  music. 

n. 

(*)  Weber  (1786-1826).  Spohr's  efforts  in  behalf  of  programmatic  music 
are  by  no  means  to  be  undervalued ;  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  even  his  finest  works  are  eclipsed  by  those  of  Weber  by  virtue  of  the  latter's 
marvellous  imagination,  unerring  judgment  in  the  choice  of  appropriate  means  of 
expression,  and  huge  technique  in  orchestration.  Weber  began  his  career  during 
what  might  be  called  the  transition  period  in  modem  art.  It  would  be  here  out 
of  place  to  enlarge  upon  the  general  conditions  attendant  uf)on  the  awakening  of 
the  so-called  "  storm  and  stress "  agitation  in  Germany.  Weber's  artistic  develop- 
ment was,  however,  so  inseparably  allied  with  this  movement  that  at  least  a  brief 
review  thereof  would  appear  indispensable  before  proceeding  to  an  examination 
of  his  orchestral  works. 

Langhans  sums  up  the  mental  and  emotional  conditions  of  this  transition 
period  by  saying  that  "  in  place  of  the  general  subject-matter  with  which  the 
lyric  poetry  of  the  preceding  century  had  been  satisfied,  the  subjective  feelings  of 
the  poet  now  came  to  the  front,  and  the  essential  nature  of  lyric  poetry, 
a  boundless  submersion  into  the  innermost  life  of  the  soul,  could  under  these 
circumstances  attain  full  prominence."  Germany  was  at  this  time  greatly 
interested  in  the  writings  of  Byron  and  of  Jean  Paul  Richter.  Romantic  poetry 
in  turn  began  to  influence  both  dramatic  and  lyric  music.  Indications  of  depart- 
ure from  the  elevated  and  reflective  style  of  the  great  classical  composers  were 
apparent.  Time-honored  rules  and  traditions  began  to  be  neglected.  Indi- 
vidualism asserted  itself.  The  general  tendency  of  the  epoch  embodied  a  certain 
mystical  element  —  a  return  to  the  chivalrous  atmosphere  of  mediaeval  romance. 
And  this  tendency  was  in   harmony  with  the  very  nature  of  Weber's  imaginative 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  36  to  47. 


72  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

trend.  In  turn,  this  unfettered  realm  of  imagination,  peopled  with  sylphs,  nymphs, 
fairies,  contained  latent  and  most  propitious  possibihties  for  progressive  orches- 
tration. Weber's  instnimentation  was  founded  upon  that  of  Beethoven,  but  it 
was  none  the  less  distinctive  and  original.  It  was  above  all  dramatic.  His  true 
greatness  lay  in  the  power  of  orchestral  portrayal  in  the  more  vivid  scenes  of  his 
operas,  and  in  his  operatic  overtures.  His  two  symphonies  are  comparatively 
weak.  Though  deficient  in  artistic  education,  Weber's  romantic  disposition 
and  rare  appreciation  for  instrumental  effects  enabled  him  to  become  one  of  the 
greatest  modem  orchestral  writers,  and  his  scoring  is  a  model  for  all  later 
composers.  He  stands  at  the  head  of  modem  instrumentation,  for  with  him  a 
new  period  began.  Moreover,  he  was  the  creator  of  modem  German  romantic 
opera.  As  Kapellmeister  at  Dresden  he  was  instrumental  in  counteracting  the 
influence  of  Italian  music  which  was  stiU  in  vogue  at  the  Court,  and  he  helped  to 
mould  the  tastes  of  the  public  in  favor  of  native  dramatic  and  orchestral  music. 
"Der  Freischiitz"  is  the  representative  of  ideal  national  opera.  Here  the  orches- 
tration is  admirably  adapted  to  depict  and  intensify  the  scenes  and  situations. 
It  abounds  in  striking  contrasts  that  are  ever  consistent  with  the  demands  of  what 
has  been  called  the  "  local "  coloring.  Episodes  requiring  sombre  and  mysterious 
tonal  tints  are  again  offset  by  the  purest  of  lyrics  and  by  powerful  dramatic 
climaxes.  "  Oberon,"  on  the  other  hand,  aboimds  in  more  peaceful  melodic  and 
harmonic  fancies,  poetic  revery,  and  dainty  scoring.  Though  the  effectiveness 
of  "Euryanthe"  is  marred  by  reason  of  its  insipid  libretto,  it  is  nevertheless  the 
most  important  of  Weber's  operas,  considered  from  a  musical  standpoint.  Its 
continuous  music  and  the  interweaving  of  recitative  and  melody  directly  point  the 
way  to  Wagner.  Weber  displayed  superb  power  in  the  development  of  his  over- 
tures. In  the  second  volume  of  his  "Music  and  Musicians,"  Wagner  declared  that 
Weber  might  be  said  to  have  originated  a  novel  form  of  overture  or  "  dramatic  fan- 
tasy," of  which  Wagner  considered  the  "Oberon"  overture  to  be  the  best  example. 

In  turning  to  the  details  of  Weber's  instrumentation  it  is  found  that  no  new 
instruments  were  introduced.  Beauty  and  novelty  were  attained  rather  by 
inherent  regard  for  suitable  application  of  tonal  color  and  by  the  discovery  of 
new  combinations.  Although  Weber,  like  Spohr,  did  not  venerate  Beethoven  as 
he  should  have  done,  it  was  not  possible  for  him  to  improve  upon  the  great 
master's  string  writing.  Of  course  certain  novel  effects  are  to  be  found,  such  as 
the  subdivision  of  the  violins  soli  into  numerous  parts,  the  viola  accompaniment 
to  Annette's  ballad,  ^^^  and  the  use  of  the  same  instrument  as  bass  to  "Leise, 
leise"(b)  in  "Der  Freischiitz." 

But  perhaps  no  other  composer  contributed  more  to  the  independence  of  the 
wood-wind.  ^•'^   Weber  was  exceedingly  modem  in  the  use  of  small  combinations. 

(a)  Ex.  47.  (b)  Ex.  43.  (c)  Ex.  39,  41. 


THE    ROMANTIC    SCHOOL 


73 


In  order  to  obtain  a  rare  and  fairy-like  effect  in  "Oberon,"  the  first  flute  and  first 
clarinet  give  out  the  melody;  the  second  flute  plays  arpeggios  as  does  likewise  the 
second  clarinet,  though  in  contrary  motion;  a  solo  horn  is  employed  as  bass.  The 
opening  bars  of  Annette's  song  in  "Der  Freischiitz"  may  be  cited  as  containing 
a  good  example  for  the  oboe  as  does  also  the  accompaniment  to  Kilian's  song 
for  the  bassoon.  But  it  was  quite  particularly  the  clarinet  for  which  Weber 
showed  especial  predilection.  Beautiful  plirases  for  the  clarinet  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Allegro  of  the  overture  to  "Der  Freischiitz"  ^'^^  as  well  as  in  the  overture  to 
"  Oberon"  ;  and  the  characteristics  of  the  instrument  in  its  entire  range  are  effect- 
ively displayed  in  the  introduction  to  Adolar's  aria  in  the  second  act  of 
"Euryanthe."  Moreover,  he  was  the  first  to  discover  the  tragic  possibilities  of 
the  chalumeau  range,  ^^^  as  exemplified  by  the  held  notes  in  the  lowest  part  of  the 
instrument  accompanying  the  entries  of  Zamiel  in  "  Der  Freischiitz," 

Next  to  the  clarinet,  the  horns  ^^^  received  especial  consideration  from  Weber, 
and  acquired  greater  freedom  and  individuality,  being  brought  into  requisition 
not  alone  for  mellow  cantilene  and  sustained  harmonies,  but  also  as  the  exponents 
of  jubilant  outbursts  or  of  gloomy  whisperings.  Many  admirable  illustrations 
will  readily  be  recalled,  such  as  the  passages  for  horns  soli  in  the  introduction  of 
the  "Freischiitz"  overture, ^^^  the  trio  for  horns  in  the  Romance  in  "Preciosa," 
and  the  horn  accompaniment  to  the  Mermaid's  Song  in  "  Oberon."  With  Weber, 
the  use  of  four  horns  and  three  trombones  became  the  rule,  whereas  with 
Beethoven  it  had  been  the  exception. 

All  things  considered,  it  is  evident  that  modem  opera  and  modem  orchestra- 
tion are  immensely  indebted  to  Weber,  and  his  influence  has  made  itself  more 
or  less  felt  upon  the  writings  of  all  subsequent  dramatic  and  orchestral  composers. 

III. 

Two  contemporaries  of  Weber  who  followed  in  his  footsteps  as  composers 
of  romantic  opera  were  Konradin  Kreutzer  (1780)  and  Marschner  (1795). 
Kreutzer's  "Nachtlager  von  Granada"  has  become  widely  known,  but  of  the  two 
men,  Marschner  is  by  far  the  more  important.  He  is  popularly  known  as  the 
heir  of  Weber,  and  has  been  called  the  connecting  link  between  Weber  and 
Wagner.  Himself  stimulated  and  influenced  by  his  friend,  Weber,  he  in  turn 
helped  to  mould  the  earlier  works  of  Wagner.  His  masterpiece,  "  Hans  Heiling," 
abounds  in  natural  melodic  expression,  tmthful  interpretation  and  dramatic 
energy.  Neither  Kreutzer  nor  Marschner  can  be  cited  as  having  contributed 
anything  substantially  new  to  instmmentation,  but  they  at  least  helped  to 
strengthen  the  foundations  of  modem  orchestration  as  initiated  by  Weber. 

d)  Ex.  37.  (e)  Ex.  40,  44,  46.  (0  Ex.  42,  45.         (g)  Ex.  36. 


74  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


TV. 

The  two  greatest  representatives  of  the  early  Romantic  School  were  Weber 
and  Schubert  (i  797-1 828),  indeed,  the  latter  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  ideal 
exponent  of  the  romantic  poets.  He  was  the  first  to  raise  the  Lied  from  compar- 
ative obscurity  to  such  prominence  as  to  bring  the  lyric  element  on  a  par  with 
that  of  the  dramatic  and  epic.  His  nature  was  contemplative  rather  than 
dramatic.  Nevertheless  some  of  his  greatest  masterpieces,  such  as  the  "Erl- 
konig,"  embody  not  only  dramatic  but  epic  characterization  as  well.  He  was 
above  all  the  master  of  exquisite  melody,  and  both  his  songs  and  his  instrumental 
works  are  further  conspicuous  for  their  daring  harmonies,  animated  and  varied 
rhythm.  He  opened  up  a  new  pathway  in  the  field  of  accompaniment  which 
acquired  not  only  greater  importance  in  intensifying  emotional  expression,  but 
came  also  to  be  the  faithful  ally  of  the  vocal  part  as  interpreter  of  the  poem.  The 
use  of  little  motives  in  the  accompaniment  to  his  songs  might  be  looked  upon 
as  an  anticipation  in  the  miniature  of  Wagner's  thematic  treatment  of  his 
"  Leit-motiven." 

Schubert's  mode  of  life  was  in  some  respects  similar  to  that  of  Beethoven  in 
that  he  lived  apart  from  the  public.  Spurred  on  by  the  example  of  Beethoven, 
he  added  to  his  series  of  youthful  symphonies  two  masterpieces  which  are  next 
in  importance  to  those  of  his  illustrious  model.  Both  the  C  major  and  the  unfin- 
ished B  minor  symphonies  display  rare  skill  in  the  handling  of  orchestral  instru- 
ments, whether  in  solo  passages  or  in  combination.  An  intimate  acquaintance 
with  their  respective  characteristics  was  afforded  him  during  his  early  training, 
and  every  bar  reveals  the  hand  of  a  master  who  without  hesitation  knew  what 
effects  he  desired  and  how  to  obtain  them.  Although  his  orchestral  works  lack 
that  depth  of  conception  that  only  Beethoven  possessed,  Schubert  nevertheless 
supplied  the  deficiency  by  means  of  beautiful  melody,  tender  expression,  forceful 
harmonic  progressions,  and,  as  just  intimated,  a  perfect  command  of  orchestral 
resources.  Schubert  enlarged  the  scope  of  practical  instrumentation  by 
discovering  two  exceedingly  valuable  and  effective  modes  of  expression  that  were 
entirely  new  so  far  as  manner  of  treatment  is  concerned.  No  composer  before 
him  had  elicited  from  the  trombones  such  impressive  utterance  as  is  to  be  found, 
for  instance,  in  the  first  movement  of  the  symphony  in  C  where  the  trombones 
pianissimo  intone  the  melody.  The  first  innovation  consisted,  therefore,  of 
employing  the  trombones  freely  as  solo  instruments,  or  again  as  independent 
factors  in  three-part  harmony,  pianissimo,  or  in  unison,  forte.  The  second 
innovation  was  the  felicitous  manner  in  which  he  contrasted  solo  instruments  of 
the  wood-wind  group,  or  what  Prout  calls  "a  kind  of  dialogue  between  them." 


THE    ROMANTIC    SCHOOL  75 

As  an  admirable  illustration  well-known  to  all,  he  calls  attention  to  the  charming 
dialogue  between  the  flute,  oboe,  and  clarinet  in  the  two  Ballet  airs  and  in  the 
Entr'-act  in  B  flat  of  the  music  to  "Rosamunde."  Many  other  interesting  details 
of  instrumentation  could  be  cited  such  as  the  effective  use  of  the  trumpet  in  the 
slow  movement  of  the  symphony  in  G;  his  chamber  music,  also,  furnishes  admir- 
able examples  of  string  writing.  Among  the  most  prominent  are  the  trio  in  E  flat, 
the  quartet  in  D  minor,  and  the  quintet  in  C. 

Only  in  recent  years  has  the  influence  of  Schubert's  orchestral  works  made 
itself  prominently  felt,  for  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century  most  of  them  had 
remained  in  manuscript.  Moreover  as  recently  as  fifty  odd  years  ago  one  of  his 
symphonies  was  considered  excessively  difficult  by  the  principal  orchestra  of 
Vienna.  Grove  says  that  "  though  the  whole  work  was  announced,  such  had  been 
the  difficulties  at  rehearsal  that  only  the  first  two  movements  were  given,  and 
they  were  carried  off  by  an  interpolation  of  an  air  from  'Lucia'  between  them." 

V. 

(*)  Mendelssohn  (1809-1847).  Concurrent  with  the  advent  of  Mendelssohn 
and  Schumann,  the  fascination  that  Rossini  had  exercised  in  Germany  lost  its 
hold,  and  the  public  learned  to  appreciate  more  and  more  the  sterling  qualities 
ef  its  own  native  music.  But  not  only  did  the  efforts  of  the  German  composers 
of  the  nineteenth  century  begin  to  win  due  recognition,  but  also  there  was 
rekindled  a  veneration  for  the  creations  of  the  great  classicists.  This  was  in  a 
large  manner  due  to  Mendelssohn's  untiring  efforts.  Possessed  of  broad  culture, 
wealth,  and  attractive  personality,  he  combined  the  spirit  of  romanticism  with  the 
structural  forms  of  classicism;  this  conservatism  helped  to  balance  the  restless 
tendencies  that  were  at  that  time  dominating  music  and  poetry.  His  composi- 
tions are  imbued  with  beauty  and  sweetness  of  melody,  with  varied  harmonies, 
buoyant  orchestration;  his  choral  writing  is  the  most  fluent  since  Bach's  and 
surpasses  in  this  respect  that  of  Handel.  Melody  is  emphasized;  tragic  depth  is 
lacking.  He  excelled  as  a  writer  of  "representative"  music,  but  even  here  his 
refined  sense  for  euphony  never  deserted  him.  He  was  successful  in  all  forms 
excepting  opera.  "St.  Paul"  and  "Elijah"  are  the  most  important  oratorios  since 
those  of  Haydn;  his  violin  concerto  comes  next  to  Beethoven's  as  a  favorite;  his 
symphonies  are  characteristic,  romantic,  and  abound  in  "local"  coloring.  His 
style  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  classes:  the  lyric,  as  typified  in  the  "Songs 
without  Words,"  and  the  fantastic  and  imaginative  as  exposed  in  the  Scherzo 
of  the  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream." 

Mendelssohn's    contributions    to    the   details    of   instrumentation    were   both 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  58  to  66. 


76  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

original  and  varied.  Already  in  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  of  which  the 
Overture  was  written  when  he  was  but  seventeen  years  old,  are  to  be  found 
marvellous  effects  that  are  indeed  fairy-like  in  their  daintiness/*^  In  fact  it 
might  be  justly  claimed  that  this  is  Mendelssohn's  best  orchestral  work,  taking 
into  consideration  its  polished  form,  transparent  and  perfectly  balanced  instru- 
mentation. Noteworthy  for  their  novelty  are  the  rapid  staccato  passages  for 
the  wood-wind  in  the  Scherzo.  ^^^  In  none  other  of  his  works  has  the  flute  been 
treated  in  a  more  charming  manner.  ^''^  Familiar  to  all  is  the  romantic  and 
extended  employment  of  the  horns  in  the  Nottumo,^*^^  as  well  as  the  ludicrous 
utterances  of  the  opheicleide  in  the  Overture. 

As  a  composer  of  oratorio,  Mendelssohn's  choruses,  recitatives  and  German 
chorale  melodies  plainly  show  the  influence  of  Bach's  "Passion  Music."  This 
is  particularly  noticeable  in  "St.  Paul."  Mendelssohn's  mightiest  creation  is 
imdoubtedly  "Elijah."  It  satisfies  every  demand  by  reason  of  its  expressive 
recitative,  its  dramatic  and  descriptive  choruses,  its  beauty  of  lyric  episodes  and 
the  appropriateness  of  its  structural  form.  The  orchestral  score  of  "Elijah" 
is  one  of  Mendelssohn's  best.  Among  minor  details,  the  violas  are  brought  into 
prominence  as  in  the  accompaniment  to  "Lord  God  of  Abraham"  where  they 
are  given  the  highest  part.  A  well-known  phrase  is  the  'cello  accompaniment 
in  thirds  to  the  baritone  solo.  The  brass  is  again  reenforced  by  an  opheicleide. 
The  opening  of  the  chorus,  "O  be  gracious,  ye  immortals,"  in  "St.  Paul"  is 
accompanied  by  divided  violas  and  'cellos,  and  parts  for  the  serpent  are  to  be 
found  in  the  same  work. 

Both  the  subject-matter  and  the  orchestration  of  Mendelssohn's  symphonies 
show  exceptional  originality,  and  the  "Scotch,"  No.  2  in  A  minor,  as  well  as  the 
"Italian,"  No.  3  in  A  major,  are  worthy  companions  to  the  "Midsummer  Night's 
Dream."  His  symphonies  are  full  of  freshness  and  vigor.  Though  classic 
purity  of  form  is  strictly  adhered  to,  Beethoven's  polyphony  and  Weber's  pictur- 
esque portrayal  are  skilfully  combined.  Like  Beethoven,  he  embodied  in  his 
symphonies  certain  dramatic  characteristics.  Rapid  passages  for  the  wood-wind, 
similar  to  those  in  the  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  are  again  to  be  met  with 
in  the  Scherzo  of  the  "Scotch"  symphony.  Mendelssohn  was  conservative  in 
employing  the  brass;  of  all  the  early  romanticists  he  remained  the  most  faithful 
to  traditional  usage  of  the  third  group,  although  trombones  were  now  incorporated 
as  habitual  members  thereof.  Among  other  novel  combinations,  divided  violas, 
reenforced  by  clarinets,  intone  the  second  subject  in  the  first  movement  of  the 
"Lobgesang"'  symphony.  In  connection  with  Mendelssohn  it  is  interesting  to 
recall  the  fact  that  as  late  as  1829  the  pianoforte  was  still  sometimes  employed 

(a)  Ex.  58,  62.  (b)  Ex.  59. 

(0)  Ex.  60,  66.  (d)  Ex.  65. 


THE    ROMANTIC    SCHOOL  77 

as  a  means  for  conducting,  since  in  that  year  he  directed  his  C  minor  symphony 
in  that  way  in  London. 

Mendelssohn's  overtures  are  more  pronounced  in  their  modem  romantic 
tendencies  than  his  symphonies.  They  are  distinctly  programmatic,  even  though 
in  structure  they  are  moulded  on  classic  forms.  From  them  dates  the  develop- 
ment of  the  modem  romantic  concert  overture.  Mendelssohn's  merits  and 
defects  have  led  to  much  violent  discussion,  but  the  suavity  of  his  melody,  the 
purity  of  his  form  and  the  delicacy  of  his  orchestration  have  been  excelled  by 
none. 

VI. 

The  most  prominent  associates  and  disciples  of  Mendelssohn  were  F.  Hiller, 
Rietz,  the  Englishman,  Bennett,  and  the  Dane,  Gade. 

Ferdinand  Hiller  (181 1)  was  a  celebrated  and  prolific  composer,  being  in  his 
day  considered  the  most  notable  musician  in  West  Germany.  It  was  his  rare 
privilege  to  be  personally  acquainted  with  no  less  than  seven  of  the  greatest 
composers  the  world  has  ever  produced  —  Cherubini,  Beethoven,  Meyerbeer, 
Rossini,  Berlioz,  Chopin  and  Liszt.  He  was,  moreover,  a  fine  pianist  and 
conductor,  and  was  particularly  happy  as  an  interpreter  of  Beethoven.  His 
compositions  are  pleasing  and  well-rounded  in  form;  but  they  were  modelled 
after  those  of  Mendelssohn  and  are  now  comparatively  forgotten  in  consequence 
of  their  lack  of  individuality. 

Julius  Rietz  (181 2)  was  closely  associated  with  Mendelssohn  whom  he  event- 
ually succeeded  as  conductor  of  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts.  He  is  primarily 
to  be  remembered  for  having  edited  Beethoven's  symphonies  as  well  as  the 
entire  works  of  Mendelssohn. 

Stemdale  Bennett  (1816)  was  one  of  England's  greatest  composers,  the  most 
gifted,  in  fact,  after  Purcell.  He  was  a  friend  both  of  Mendelssohn  and  of 
Schumann,  and  their  enthusiasm  encouraged  and  stimulated  him  to  further 
develop  his  o^vn  talents.  Although  the  influence  more  particularly  of  Men- 
delssohn is  plainly  to  be  found  in  his  works,  he  retained  his  individuality  and 
displayed  numerous  traits  that  are  undeniably  original.  His  most  important 
works  are  an  oratorio  "The  Woman  of  Samaria";  a  cantata  "The  May  Queen"; 
a  symphony  in  G  minor;  four  overtures,  and  four  pianoforte  concertos.  He  has 
been  called  the  founder  of  a  new  "  English  School." 

Since  the  substance  of  Gade's  music  is  nominally  Scandinavian  in  character, 
it  will  again  be  referred  to  later  on  in  connection  with  the  Northern  countries. 


78  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


VII. 

Schumann  (1810-1856).  In  spite  of  the  dept]|i  pf  t^pi^pht  and  feeling,  the 
briUiancy_9,f.  .ideas,  and  the  programmatic  tendencies  that  signalize  Schumann's 
monumental  productions,  he  unfortunately  holds  the  unique  position  of  being 
one  of  the  few  great  masters  who  did  not  excel  in  orchestration.  Nevertheless, 
such  is  the  importance  of  his  orchestral  works  that  they  have  won  for  themselves 
an  exalted  and  permanent  place  in  musical  literature.  Schumann's  relation  to 
the  Romantic  Movement  may  be  tersely  stated  as  in  one  of  Dickinson's  condensed 
reviews:  "The  romantic  ideal  attains  self -consciousness  in  Schumann.  Weber 
and  Schubert  never  called  themselves  romanticists  and  were  not  wholly  aware  of 
the  tendencies  of  their  work.  Schumann,  a  critical  thinker  and  self -analyst,  not 
only  moulded  and  cqlored  liis  music  in  accord  with  certain  definite  poetic  concep- 
tions imbibed  from  the  romantic  writers,  but  also  became  the  literary  champion 
of  romanticism  in  music,  and  aimed  directly  at  fixed  radical  principles  in  the 
critical  and  creative  thought  of  his  time.  He,  therefore,  not  only  marks  the 
beginning  of  a  new  era  in  musical  art,  but  is  also  the  type  of  the  modem  liberally 
cultured  and  reflective  musician."  With  Schumann,  the  subject-matter  and 
treatment  of  design  are  of  all  importance.  His  compositions  contain  the  quint- 
essence of  the  poetic  and  romantic.  Every  little  melody  is  a  miniature  poem  in 
tones,  tinged  by  a  certain  melancholy  and  even  gloomy  coloring.  He  was,  like 
Mendelssohn,  an  ardent  disciple  of  Bach,  but  his  harmonies  are  freer  and  bolder 
than  Mendelssohn's,  and  his  pianoforte  compositions  show  the  influence  more 
especially  of  Chopin.  The  chief  characteristics  of  these  works  are  cantabile 
expression,  intricacy,  and  the  predominance  of  harmony  and  rhythm  over  melody. 
A  multitude  of  ideas  are  frequently  crowded  into  the  space  of  a  few  bars.  As  a 
song  writer  Schumann  rivalled  and  perhaps  even  excelled  Schubert.  The  songs 
of  these  two  peers,  together  with  those  of  Franz  (181 5),  represent  the  highest 
ideal  of  the  German  Lied,  for  the  exquisite  taste  and  sentiment  of  Franz  appeal 
strongly  to  the  cultivated  musician.  Although  Schubert's  influence  upon 
Schumann's  songs  is  plainly  to  be  seen,  Schumann  enhanced  the  functions  of  the 
accompaniment  and  frequently  assigned  but  a  secondary  r61e  to  the  vocal  part. 
Novelty  of  form  and  style  characterize  his  works  for  soli,  chorus  and  orchestra; 
portions  of  "Scenes  from  Faust,"  "Paradise  and  the  Peri,"  "Manfred,"  represent 
his  highest  attainment  and  contain  also  some  effective  scoring.  The  instrumen- 
tation of  his  chamber  music  betrays  more  regard  for  sonority  than  for  classic 
counterpoint.  Of  surpassing  beauty  are  the  quartets  in  A  and  in  A  minor,  and 
the  greatest  of  all,  the  quintet  in  E  flat. 

Schumann's  fouf"s^mpBBnies°rant  next  in  importance  to  those  of  Beethoven 


THE    ROMANTIC    SCHOOL  79 

and  Schubert,  and  in  depth  of  sentiment  and  emotional  power  he  proved  himself 
a  worthy"  successor  to  Beethoven.  His  symphonies  are  stamped  with  distinctive 
individuality,  traditional  form  being  subjected  to  certain  modifications  that  were 
in  keeping  with  the  progressive  tendencies  of  his  nature.  Thus  the  D  minor 
symphony  is  intended  to  be  played  entire  without  a  pause,  and  subject-matter 
from  one  movement  reasserts  itself  in  another.  It  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to 
analyze  Schumann's  instrumentation  too  closely.  He  followed  but  could  not 
equal  that  of  Mendelssohn.  Artistic  feeling  for  orchestral  effects  and  occasional 
good  scoring  are  to  be  found,  but  much  of  the  latter  is  thick  and  heavy.  He  was 
apt  to  follow  Rossini's  more  or  less  trivial  methods  of  employing  the  third  enlarged 
orchestral  group.  Even  Schubert  was  not  entirely  exempt  from  this  mannerism. 
Such  incongruities  as  the  employment  of  a  bassoon  as  a  bass  to  trombones  could 
also  be  cited.  Of  material  advantage,  however,  was  his  introduction  into  German 
orchestras  of  valve-horns  and  valve-trumpets.  But  in  a  word,  it  is  the  substantial 
worth  of  the  music  itself,  not  the  instrumentation,  that  has  made  Schumann's 
orchestral  works  immortal. 

VIII. 

Among  the  prominent  associates  and  disciples  of  Schumann  should  be  men- 
tioned Volkmann,  Reinecke,  Bargiel,  and  Jensen. 

The  compositions  of  Volkmann  (181 5)  show  affinity  to  Schumann's.  His 
pianoforte  works  bear  fanciful  titles,  and  his  symphonies  and  quartets  are 
massive  and  musicianly.  But  like  most  satellites,  he  was  not  possessed  of  suffi- 
cient spontaneity  to  acquire  wide-spread  or  enduring  recognition.  The  com- 
positions of  Carl  Reinecke  (1824),  who  held  the  honorable  position  of  director  of 
the  Gewandhaus  Concerts  from  i860  until  1895,  show  the  influence  more  espe- 
cially of  Schumann,  although  that  of  Mendelssohn  as  well  as  of  Wagner  and 
Brahms  is  also  apparent.  He  owes  his  reputation  as  a  composer  largely  to  his 
smaller  works,  in  which  the  tastes  of  a  refined  pianist  are  much  in  evidence.  Few 
could  be  compared  with  him  as  an  interpreter  of  Mozart,  and  his  activity  not  alone 
as  a  composer  of  merit  but  also  as  a  prominent  pianist  and  distinguished  conductor 
has  won  him  universal  fame.  Bargiel  (1828)  was  one  of  the  foremost  disciples  of 
Schumann  whose  principles  he  zealously  disseminated,  both  in  his  capacity  as  a 
fine  teacher  and  as  composer.  His  symphonies,  chamber  music  and  quite  espe- 
cially his  psalms  for  chorus  and  orchestra  show  considerable  originality  and  fine 
musicianship.  Likewise  Jensen  (1837)  took  Schumann  unreservedly  as  his  model 
in  spite  of  being  in  sympathetic  accord  with  Gade.  His  songs  and  pianoforte 
pieces  in  the  lyric  genre  are  imbued  with  true  feeling  and  rare  sensuous  charm. 


8o  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


IX. 

In  a  general  sense,  all  modern  composers  belong  to  the  Romantic  School,  but 
for  the  sake  of  consistency  in  this  general  classification,  Lachner,  Jadassohn  and 
Moszkowski  should  be  mentioned  as  direct  followers  of  both  Mendelssohn  and 
Schumann. 

Franz  Lachner  (1803)  was  prominently  connected  with  the  musical  life  of 
Munich  prior  to  the  rise  of  Wagner  worship  in  1865.  In  spite  of  his  untiring 
activity  as  a  conductor,  he  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  and  at  the  same  time  most 
popular  composers  of  South  Germany.  His  style  betrays  the  mind  of  a  learned 
man.  The  harmonies  are  modem,  but  his  works  are  none  the  less  imbued  with 
a  certain  tinge  of  classicism.  Lachner  wrote  several  operas  and  oratorios,  eight 
symphonies,  and  much  chamber  and  church  music;  but  of  greatest  importance 
are  the  suites  for  grand  orchestra  of  which  he  wrote  eight.  They  are  magnificent 
specimens  of  contrapuntal  knowledge.  Some  condemn  his  writings  as  being 
"Kapellmeistermusik"  and  as  containing  nothing  truly  original  or  great. 
Riemann's  views  are  radically  dififerent:  —  "Lachner  is  at  his  best  in  his  orches- 
tral suites,  which,  as  a  kind  of  modem  continuation  of  Bach-Handel  orchestral 
movements,  occupy  a  distinctive  place  in  musical  literature.  Sovereign  command 
of  contrapuntal  devices  combined  with  nobility  of  invention  will  secure  for  them 
in  the  future  greater  appreciation  than  is  accorded  them  at  the  present  day." 

Jadassohn  (1831)  holds  an  important  position  in  the  history  of  instrumenta- 
tion, not  so  much,  perhaps,  as  a  result  of  his  own  composition  as  for  the 
excellence  of  his  teaching  and  of  his  theoretical  works,  which  include  the  valuable 
"Lehrbuch  der  Instrumentation."  A  prominent  feature  of  many  of  his  works  is 
the  facility  with  which  canonic  writing  is  applied.  Among  the  best-known  and 
most  popular  of  his  orchestral  compositions  is  the  Serenade,  opus  35. 

Moszkowski  (1854)  is  one  of  the  younger  composers  whose  writings  are  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  rather  than  with  the  local  coloring 
of  Poland  as  might  have  been  expected  since  his  father  was  a  native  of  that 
country.  The  most  popular  of  his  works  are  the  "Spanische  Tanze"  for  piano- 
forte, whereas  the  most  important  in  orchestral  form  is  the  symphonic  poem 
"  Jeanne  d' Arc."  The  style  is  dignified  and  musicianly,  but  lacks  the  true  great- 
ness of  originality. 

The  list  of  faithful  adherents  to  the  pure  romanticism  of  the  early  school  is 
herewith  properly  concluded.  Only  an  imaginary  line,  however,  separates  Spohr 
and  Weber  from  Raff  and  Brahms ;  so  the  following  chapter  is  nothing  more  than 
a  continuation  of  the  present  discussion. 

(Summary  on  page  175.) 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  CLASSICAL  ROMANTICISTS. 

The  representatives  of  classical  romanticism  are  RafiF,  Rubinstein,  Goldmark, 
Brahms,  Bruch,  Rheinberger.  The  influence  that  Raff  and  Brahms  had  upon 
orchestration  requires  especial  consideration.  Rubinstein  will  be  referred  to 
again  in  connection  with  Russian  composers.  And  a  brief  analysis  will  be 
sufficient  to  discover  the  respective  characteristics  that  distinguish  Goldmark's 
highly  colored  orchestration,  that  of  Bruch  in  accompaniment  to  noble  choral 
works,  and  Rheinberger's  conservative  yet  finished  instrumentation  for  sacred 
composition. 


Raff  (1822-1882).  To  begin  with  Raff,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  determine 
the  precise  value  of  his  compositions.  Masterpieces  must  be  arraigned  side  by 
side  with  works  of  decided  inferiority.  He  adapted  Beethoven's  calorific  poly- 
phony together  with  the  charmingly  picturesque  style  of  Weber,  but  did  not 
approach  his  eminent  contemporary,  Brahms,  either  in  depth  of  thought  or  in 
originality  of  ideas.  He  was,  however,  superior  to  Brahms  as  an  orchestral 
colorist.  Encouraged  by  the  s)rmpathy  and  practical  help  of  such  men  as 
Mendelssohn,  Liszt,  von  Bulow,  he  became  in  his  younger  days  a  sturdy  advocate 
of  the  modem  German  tendencies,  and  even  wrote  a  pamphlet  entitled  "Die 
Wagnerfrage  "  ;  but  in  spite  of  his  affiliation  with  the  Weimar  coterie.  Raff  event- 
ually developed  into  a  composer  more  especially  of  chamber  music  and 
symphonies.  "Im  Walde"  and  "Lenore"  are  the  best  known  of  the  orchestral 
works,  —  indeed,  the  first  named  is  without  doubt  his  most  important  production. 
Raff  was  essentially  a  romanticist;  what  Ls  more,  he  went  so  far  as  to  write 
descriptive  program  music.  Nevertheless,  his  style  bears  but  little  relation  to 
that  of  Wagner  or  Liszt ;  it  displays,  in  fact,  a  decided  reserve  in  that  he  employed 
traditional  forms  and  Beethoven's  symphonic  orchestra.  Notwithstanding  Raff's 
descriptive  faculties,  his  works  betray  unquestionable  lyric  tendencies.  Occa- 
sional approach  to  the  salon  style  is  also  in  evidence,  nor  do  the  larger  works 
reveal  that  breadth  of  style  and  invariable  loftiness  of  purpose  that  signalize  those 
of  Beethoven  and  Brahms.    He  possessed  great  facihty,  but  this  very  attribute 

81 


82  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

endangered  the  quality  of  his  conceptions  and  was  conducive  to  carelessness 
and  loss  of  fine  feeling. 

Striking  insignia  of  absolutely  original  scoring  are  not  conspicuous,  although 
the  entire  character  of  the  orchestration  gives  evidence  of  fertile  imagination 
and  sound  judgment.  Some  of  Wagner's  full  and  rich  effects  found  their  way 
also  into  Raff's  symphonic  pages.  The  latter  was  particularly  happy  in  the  use 
of  horns,  wrote  almost  exclusively  for  valve-homs  and  valve-trumpets,  and 
established  a  precedent  by  selecting  those  in  F  for  regular  practice. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  Raff's  st)'le  is  a  compound  of  classicism  and  roman- 
ticism, together  with  yet  more  advanced  tendencies  so  far  as  the  "program" 
element  is  concerned,  his  title  as  pioneer  of  the  classical-romanticists  has  been 
applied  with  good  judgment.  The  succeeding  luminaries  of  this  school  revealed 
similar  tendencies.  Rubinstein,  Goldmark  and  Bruch  are  all  to  a  more  or  less 
degree  exponents  of  the  programmatic  idea.  Even  so  conservative  a  composer 
as  Rheinberger,  whom  some  are  tempted  to  call  even  a  reactionist,  was  at  times 
subjugated  by  its  fascination.  This  is  borne  out  by  his  "  Wallenstein "  symphony. 
Brahms  stands  forth  in  his  solitary  grandeur  as  the  one  exception  to  the  rule. 
Towering  above  his  fellow  classical-romanticists,  he  attained  the  exaltation  of 
his  fame  by  a  path  they  could  not  tread.    It  is  to  him  that  we  now  must  turn. 

n. 

Brahms  (1833-1897).  In  the  April  number,  1895,  of  the  magazine  entitled 
"Music"  are  to  be  found  the  following  remarkable  assertions  in  an  otherwise 
admirable  article  by  Mr.  W.  S.  B.  Matthews :  —  "  Handel  is  antiquated ;  Bach 
still  lives,  but  we  can  enjoy  his  works  only  as  exceptions  to  our  current  diet; 
Haydn  symphonies  sound  like  string  quartets  played  a  trifle  large  and  seasoned 
with  a  few  notes  of  trumpets  and  wood-wind.  Mozart  in  feminine  phrase  is  'too 
sweet  for  any  use,'  and  Mendelssohn  has  departed  to  the  place  where  good  boys 
go.  We  have  left  to  us  the  over-worked  immortal  nine  of  Beethoven  (now  rather 
shrunk  to  five)  and  two  of  Schubert;  we  tolerate  Schumann  for  the  sake  of  his 
ideas.  We  hear  Tschaikowsky  because  he  is  a  master  in  his  way.  But  the 
greatest  of  tone-poets  now  living,  and  the  greatest  since  Beethoven,  appears  to 
be  Brahms." 

These  broad  assertions  may  be  looked  upon  as  revealing  in  all  good  faith 
the  convictions  of  the  author  himself;  again,  Mr.  Matthews  may  have  aimed  to 
be  facetious ;  or  else  these  assertions  were  intended  merely  to  expose  the  tenets  of 
the  ultra-enthusiasts  for  one  of  the  latest  phases  of  art.  It  would  appear  to  the 
present  writer  that,  irrespective  of  motives,  such  comparisons  are  entirely  super- 
fluous.    Brahms  occupies  an  isolated  and  lofty  pinnacle  by  himself.    Calm  and 


THE    CLASSICAL    ROMANTICISTS  83 

self-contained  in  the  midst  of  the  restless  and  feverish  impetuosity  that  charac- 
terizes the  "Sturm  und  Drang"  period,  he  preferred  the  seclusion  and 
intellectuality  of  a  reflective  student's  life,  and  moulded  his  creations  in  accord- 
ance therewith.  The  only  comparison  that  would  appear  at  all  relevant  is  the 
unshaken  faith  in  an  ideal  that  he  shared  with  Wagner.  Beyond  this  their  views 
diverged  when  it  came  to  the  question  of  what  this  ideal  should  be  or  how  it  should 
be  attained.  Brahms  was  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  "New  German  School." 
The  intellectual  and  tragic  aspect  of  modem  absolute  music  was  his  ideal.  The 
leading  theme  was  the  germ  for  synthetical  treatment.  Orchestral  coloring  or 
dramatic  effect  was  of  secondary  consideration.  Brahms  accepted  as  his  model 
Bach's  austerely  noble  methods  and  strict  logical  process  of  thematic  develop- 
ment, whereas  the  exterior  forms  of  Beethoven  and  Schumann  were  virtually 
sufl5cient  for  his  needs.  Nevertheless,  it  cannot  be  said  that  his  conservative 
formal  structure  was  but  a  slavish  imitation  of  theirs.  Many  of  his  works,  such 
as  the  Rhapsodies  and  Klavierstiicke,  are  certainly  not  in  strict  sonata  form,  nor 
are  they  lacking  in  distinctive  individuality.  Brahms  is  the  ideal  exponent  of 
purity,  strength,  profundity,  nobihty,  greatness  of  expression  and  novelty  of 
treatment.  His  aims  differed  from  those  of  the  earlier  classicists  in  that  his  subject- 
matter  embodies  beauty  of  thought  rather  than  external  beauty  in  music.  The 
prevalence  in  many  of  his  works  of  a  certain  heaviness  of  spirit  and  the  reflex 
even  of  asceticism  have  been  pointed  out  by  more  than  one  of  his  biographers. 

It  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  in  the  terms  in  which  Rheinberger 
once  expressed  himself  to  the  present  writer,  the  background  of  Brahms'  orches- 
tral canvass  is  of  a  grayish  hue.  Nor  can  his  scoring  be  cited  as  a  model  for 
felicitous  instrumentation  or  glowing  orchestral  colors.  In  listening  to  his 
symphonies,  one  is  occasionally  disturbed  by  a  certain  heaviness  or  what  can  be 
better  expressed  as  "  muddiness."  This  defect  is  primarily  due  to  the  low 
distribution  of  parts  for  violas  as  well  as  for  basses.  Vagueness  of  detail 
in  melodic  delineation  of  inner  voices  is  the  more  conspicuous  since  Brahms 
attached  great  importance  to  the  functions  of  the  viola,  in  addition  to  which  he 
frequently  divided  them.  Certain  conventionahties  in  writing  for  the  wood-wind 
are  also  apparent.  Passages  in  thirds  and  sixths  are  analogous  to  those  in 
Beethoven's  earlier  works;  other  passages  recall  certain  ones  of  Schubert.  But 
we  can  verily  afford  to  overlook  such  minor  details.  Let  us  rather  turn  to  a 
consideration  of  those  essentials  of  Brahms'  symphonic  and  other  orchestral 
writings  that  have  caused  him  to  be  justly  regarded  as  the  worthy  apostle  of 
Beethoven  and  direct  successor  to  Schumann. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  his  symphonies  is  their  colossal  structure.  They 
are  evolved  without  apparent  effort.  There  is  no  retrogression,  no  episodic 
mediocrity.     Brahms  had  no  theories  to  promulgate,  no  gorgeous  tableaux  to 


84  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

portray.  Nevertheless,  his  orchestration,  though  conservative,  bears  the  impress 
of  distinctive  individuality,  is  replete  with  variety  and  characteristic  tone-color, 
and  abounds  in  peculiar  and  interesting  combinations.  A  few  examples,  drawn 
from  four  distinctive  types  of  composition,  will  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the 
fertility  of  his  imagination.  Prout  calls  special  attention  in  one  of  his  articles 
on  the  orchestra  to  the  second  Serenade  in  A,  the  Symphony  in  D,  and  the 
"Deutsches  Requiem."  We  will  add  to  these  the  "Variations  on  a  theme  by 
Haydn."  The  Serenade,  opus  i6,  is  one  of  the  earlier  works.  It  is  scored  for 
the  usual  wood-wind  in  pairs,  besides  horns  and  strings,  but  there  are  no  violins 
throughout  the  entire  piece.  It  presents  a  phase  of  instrumentation  foreign  to 
the  usually  heavy  style  of  Brahms,  and  abounds  in  variated  shades  of  coloring. 
The  symphony  embodies  the  highest  attainment  of  orchestral  development  and 
"solid"  instrumentation.  The  nine  variations  suggest  novel  aspects  in  the  field 
of  independent  orchestral  music.  But  on  the  whole,  perhaps  the  finest  orchestral 
effects  are  to  be  found  in  the  "Deutsches  Requiem,"  and  it  is  possible  that  some 
of  the  tonal  tints  employed  therein  were  suggested  by  Cherubini's  Requiem  in 
C  minor.  The  reader  may  recall  the  citation  on  page  60  of  Cherubini's  choice 
of  instruments  for  the  purpose  of  accompanying  the  opening  chorus.  There 
the  required  sombre  tone-color  is  obtained  by  employing  divided  violas  and 
violoncellos  with  double-basses,  bassoons,  horns,  and  miiffled  kettle-drums.  The 
solemn  and  appropriate  color  that  pervades  the  opening  chorus  of  the  German 
Requiem  —  "  Blessed  are  they  that  mourn "  —  is  due  to  the  expressive  powers 
of  the  string  band  without  violins.  The  violas  and  violoncellos  are  again  divided, 
and  the  general  subdued  effect  is  further  enhanced  by  means  of  sustained  notes  for 
the  horns.  It  is  not  intended  to  convey  the  idea  that  these  two  requiems  could  in 
any  way  be  suggestive  one  of  the  other  beyond  a  certain  similarity  of  tonal  color  in 
the  opening  choruses  of  both.  In  all  other  respects  they  are  radically  different. 
The  treatment  of  musical  subject-matter  proper  as  weU  as  the  exposition  of  sacred 
words  show  diametrically  opposed  points  of  view.  The  funeral  march  which 
ushers  in  the  following  chorus  "For  all  flesh  is  as  grass"  affords  another  proof 
of  Brahm's  versatility  when  searching  for  further  religious  effects  that  shall  never- 
theless embody  sufficient  contrast  so  as  to  avoid  monotony  in  two  consecutive 
movements.  The  violins  and  violas  are  not  only  divided  into  six  parts,  but  are 
muted  as  well.  The  string  parts  are  redoubled  by  the  wood-wind,  while  the 
kettle-drums  lend  distinctive  character  to  the  passage  by  means  of  a  prominent 
though  subdued  rhythmic  figure. 

The  question  may  well  be  asked  why  Brahms  should  not  be  regarded  as  the 
seventh  of  the  great  classicists  rather  than  as  a  classical-romanticist.  The  answer 
is  not  hard  to  find.  His  treatment  of  form  and  instrumentation  is  distinctly 
classic.     His   method   of   harmonization   contains   modem   characteristics.     The 


THE    CLASSICAL    ROMANTICISTS  85 

complex  rhythms  that  are  conspicuous  in  many  of  his  earlier  works  together  with 
their  rather  obtrusive  syncopations  and  cross  accents  are  suggestive  of  Schumann; 
but  whereas  Schumann  adhered  to  some  marked  rhythm  that  was  consistently 
carried  out  in  order  to  acquire  variety  and  to  knit  together  the  organic  structure 
as  a  whole,  Brahms  gradually  branched  out  into  broader  fields,  so  that  eventually 
the  relegation  of  rhythm  to  a  comparatively  subordinate  relationship  to  the 
general  architectural  scheme  reverts  once  more  to  Beethoven's  methods  of  proce- 
dure. Thus  Brahms  displayed  a  progressive  spirit  when  employing  doctrines 
of  the  classic  school,  wbjch  was  tempered  withal  by  extreme  caution  in  the 
acceptance  of  modem  tendencies.  The  amalgamation  is  felicitous  to  a  high 
degree,  and  has  had  a  most  salutary  effect  upon  the  ever  increasing  inclination 
of  the  ultra-modem  school  to  enslave  music  in  the  throes  of  what  has  been  called 
"a  thrice-intensified  Welischmerz."  Even  as  Wagner  stands  supreme  as  the 
representative  dramatic  and  orchestral  writer  of  the  nineteenth  century,  so 
Brahms  may  be  regarded  as  a  peer  without  rival  in  the  art  of  thematic  develop- 
ment, as  the  noblest  exponent  since  Beethoven  of  large  proportions  and  great 
breadth,  and  as  the  most  prominent  symphonic  writer  since  Schumann,  whose 
superior  he  was  in  the  technics  of  orchestration. 

in. 

The  fact  that  Goldmark  (1830)  was  bom  in  Hungary  does  not  entitle 
him  to  recognition  as  a  composer  of  decisively  indigenous  characteristics,  — 
indeed,  the  scenes  of  three  of  his  most  important  works  are  all  laid  in  the  Far  East. 
Neither  can  it  be  said  that  his  strength  hes  in  spontaneity  of  musical  thought  or 
freedom  of  thematic  treatment.  He  owes  his  reputation  primarily  to  his  gifts 
as  an  orchestral  writer.  like  Berlioz,  he  lacks  the  geniality  of  musical  inspira- 
tion, but  atones  for  this  by  vivid  orchestral  color  and  master}'  of  material  effects. 
The  fortunes  of  divers  Oriental  queens  have  evidently  aroused  Goldmark's  most 
lively  sympathy!  But  this  peculiar  circumstance  is  fehcitous  to  a  high  degree, 
for  what  a  wealth  of  glowing  color  surrounds  his  dramatization  of  the  queen  of 
Sheba,  how  picturesque  is  the  presentation  of  the  Amazon  queen  in  the  overture 
"  Penthesilea,"  what  power  of  imagination  is  revealed  in  the  unfolding  of  Kali- 
dasa's  poetic  love  story!  Goldmark  could  have  found  no  finer  opportunity  for 
rare  contrasts  and  telling  effects  than  in  this  portrayal  of  Dushyanta,  the  Rajah  — 
chivalrous,  though  unfaithful,  of  Sakuntala  —  tender  and  guileless,  yet  queenly. 
Goldmark  succeeded  admirably,  and  this  world-renowned  overture  is,  by  virtue 
of  its  orchestration,  a  faithful  interpretation  of  Dushyanta's  wooing,  the  secret 
marriage,  his  forgetfubiess  of  Sakuntala  and  her  womanly  fortitude  during  the 
years  of  unrecognition,  her  solicitous  watchfulness  over  the  welfare  of  Sarva- 


86  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Damana,  their  child,  and  the  final  touching  reunion  and  retribution.  Although 
"Die  Konigin  von  Saba"  has  won  wide-spread  popularity,  Goldmark  is,  on  the 
whole,  at  his  best  in  purely  instrumental  forms.  The  opening  up  of  his  career 
is  largely  due  to  "^akuntala  "  and  to  a  Scherzo  for  orchestra,  opus  19,  both  of 
which  precede  the  above-named  opera.  His  pleasing  symphony  "Die  landliche 
Hochzeit"  may  not  embody  the  warmth  and  passion  that  characterize  the 
Oriental  subjects,  but  it  is  orchestrated  with  rare  skill,  contains  some  daring 
harmonic  progressions,  and  reveals  sentient  appreciation  for  rich  and  glowing 
colors.  But  this  symphony  and  that  in  E  flat  again  prove  that  Goldmark  holds 
the  attention  of  his  audience  not  so  much  by  originality  of  themes  and  elaborate 
development  as  by  the  sterling  qualities  of  his  instrumentation. 

IV. 

Antithetical  to  Goldmark's  dependency  upon  the  orchestra  for  effect  is  the 
euphonious  choral  style  of  Bruch  (1838).  Here  are  to  be  found  naturalness 
of  invention,  graceful  and  flowing  melody,  simplicity,  and  above  all  beauty  of 
harmonic  structure.  Bruch  exhibits  extraordinary  power  in  handling  large  vocal 
forces,  and  displays,  moreover,  marked  predilection  for  Greek  and  Scandinavian 
subjects.  The  cantatas  "Odysseus"  and  "Arminius,"  for  soli,  mixed  chorus  and 
orchestra,  are  counted  among  his  most  important  works  and  embody  the  most 
favorable  phase  of  his  orchestration.  "Salamis,"  a  cantata  for  male  chorus,  is 
an  inspiring  song  of  victory,  and  "Frithjof,"  likewise  written  for  men's  voices, 
is  an  intensely  dramatic  exposition  of  six  scenes  chosen  from  the  Frithjof  Saga  of 
Tegner.  Best  known  is  perhaps  the  "Lied  von  der  Glocke,"  whereas  the  grave  and 
earnest  accents  of  the  Hebraic  "Kol  Nidrei,"  together  with  the  tragic  intensity 
and  passionate  nature  of  the  violin  concerto  in  G  minor,  opus  26,  show  what 
Bruch  could  do  when  employing  the  orchestra  to  throw  a  solo  instrument  into 
relief.  His  independent  orchestral  works  are  not  sufficiently  spontaneous,  whereas 
his  accompaniments  embody  perfect  taste,  genuine  expression  and  an  abundance 
of  energetic  force.  The  very  nature  of  his  themes  is  such  as  to  require  either 
vocal  forces  or  a  solo  stringed  instrument  to  present  them  in  the  most  favorable 
light.  Bruch  possesses  supreme  mastery  of  modem  orchestral  resources,  but 
is  at  his  best  in  the  art  of  accompaniment. 

V. 

No  composer  has  ever  taken  his  art  more  to  heart  than  Rheinberger 
(1839).  Composition  was  for  him  a  serious,  even  sacred  avocation.  It  was  not 
to  be  approached  in  a  spirit  of  levity,  nor  could  it  assume  for  him  so  humble  a 


THE    CLASSICAL    ROMANTICISTS  87 

mission  as  merely  to  amuse  and  entertain.  This  loftiness  of  purpose  is  visible 
even  in  his  rather  infrequent  efforts  in  lighter  vein.  Although  he  was,  to  a  degree, 
imconsciously  swept  along  on  the  irresistible  tidal  wave  of  the  epoch,  nevertheless 
his  conceptions  found  utterance  in  a  but  mild  form  of  romanticism,  and  his  works 
are  seasoned  with  a  certain  spice  of  classic  severity.  It  may  be  fearlessly  asserted 
that  Rheinberger  is  the  greatest  of  aU  composers  for  the  organ  after  Bach  and 
Mendelssohn.  His  organ  works  are  rich  in  color  and  of  masterful  effect.  They 
combine  free  harmonic  treatment,  freely  developed  counterpoint  and  freedom  of 
form.  These  attributes  are  particularly  noticeable  in  the  first  organ  concerto. 
His  genius  further  reveals  itself  in  the  religious  fervor  that  per\'ades  his  mighty 
series  of  sacred  works.  These  two  forms  of  composition  —  organ  and  church 
music,  together  with  part-songs  of  rare  beauty,  are  the  most  notable  accomplish- 
ments of  this  versatile  master.  On  the  other  hand,  neither  his  operas  nor  his 
orchestral  works  can  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  important  contributions  to  musical 
literature.  Strange,  therefore,  that  Rheinberger  should  have  first  won  general 
recognition  through  his  "  Symphonische  Tongemalde  Wallenstein."  What  is 
more,  this  is  the  work  for  which  its  author  was  led  to  essay  the  programmatic 
style  of  writing.  Had  he  continued  to  develop  his  talents  along  similar  lines, 
the  world  might  have  been  impoverished  to  the  extent  of  divers  organ  and  sacred 
works,  but  Rheinberger  himself  must  have  risen  to  far  greater  eminence.  It 
is  to  be  admitted  that  his  subsequent  Florentine  symphony,  as  also  the  oratorio 
"  Christoforus "  and  the  opera  "Thiirmers  Tochterlein,"  are  none  of  them  equal 
to  the  Wallenstein  s}TTiphony,  but  according  to  Rheinberger's  own  confession  he 
became  disheartened  by  neglect  at  the  time  when  Wagner  stormed  the  portals  of 
the  Mimich  Opera  House.  Thenceforth  he  turned  for  relief  to  other  fields  of 
composition  and  became,  as  he  grew  older,  more  and  more  conservative  —  one  is 
almost  obliged  to  say  bigoted. 

The  instrumentation  of  his  purely  orchestral  works  is  pointedly  restricted  to 
Beethovian  procedure  and  reverts  even  to  that  of  Mozart  in  the  use  of  trumpets 
and  kettle-drums.  Its  general  effect  is  one  of  great  refinement;  it  is  marv^ellously 
smooth  and  perfectly  rounded  in  every  detail;  but  the  essential  elements  of  indi- 
viduality and  novelty  do  not  enter  into  the  orchestral  scheme  to  any  appreciable 
extent. 

Rheinberger's  last  years  were  saddened  by  family  affliction  and  embittered 
by  physical  suffering.  He  displayed  an  heroic  fortitude,  but  his  assumed  cheer- 
fulness concealed  the  loneliness,  the  sadness,  the  melancholy  even  to  morbidness 
that  were  constantly  preying  upon  his  soul.  His  life  became  more  and  more 
that  of  a  recluse  and  an  ascetic.  Meanwhile  his  compositions  continued  even  to 
the  end  to  reflect  imswen'ing  faith,  serenity,  loyalty  of  heart  and  nobility  of  mind. 
The  greater  his  honor  for  thus  excluding  the  "ego"  from  his  final  oft'erings  to  the 


88  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

world!  A  certain  melancholy  coloring  does  assert  itself  in  his  unfinished  mass 
in  A  minor,  but  unaffected  simplicity  and  touching  pathos  were  wonderfully 
appropriate  for  what  proved  to  be  his  "  Schwanengesang."  f 

It  is  now  time  to  leave  the  peaceful  haven  of  the  classical-romanticists,  and 
embark  upon  the  restless  seas  of  advanced  thought  as  set  forth  in  the  next  chapter. 

(Summary  on  page  175.) 

t  The  present  writer  has  developed  and  edited  this  mass  as  a  posthumous  work,  opus  147,  in  the 
hope  of  presenting  it  in  a  form  suitable  for  performance. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  NEW  MOVEMENT. 

Three  countries,  France,  Hungary  and  Germany,  share  the  honors  in  having 
brought  forth  three  of  the  greatest  orchestral  composers,  Beriioz,  Liszt  and 
Wagner,  who  together  foxmded  the  so-called  "New  Movement." 

I. 

^*>  Berlioz  (1803-1869).  The  contributions  of  Beriioz  to  the  develop- 
ment of  "program"  music  and  to  modem  science  of  orchestration  loom  up  in 
gigantic  proportions.  He  was  practically  the  first  representative  of  the  New 
Movement,  but  contrary  to  the  natural  course  of  evolution,  he  was  not  only  its 
founder  but  at  once  its  most  radical  exponent  as  well.  Liszt  in  his  younger  days 
heard  some  of  Berlioz's  compositions  in  Paris,  and  it  was  thus  that  the  new  seed 
was  transplanted  into  Germany  where  it  was  cultivated  in  concert  music  by  Liszt 
himself,  who  thereby  in  turn  influenced  Wagner's  music  dramas.  The  difference 
in  objective  between  the  principles  laid  down  by  Schumann  and  Berlioz  was  that 
the  former  aimed  to  portray  a  single  independent  thought  or  image,  whereas 
Berhoz's  music  was  connected  with  a  series  of  events  or  ideas.  His  objective 
was  to  make  the  music  symbolic  of  images  and  conceptions  that  should  be 
capable  of  being  expressed  in  words,  and  his  pseudo-symphonies  were  accom- 
panied by  an  elaborate  word  exposition  as  a  running  commentary  on  the  music. 
As  the  result  of  his  activity,  the  dawn  of  a  new  era  in  concert  music  appeared  in 
France.  As  the  chief  representative  of  her  romantic  musical  art,  he  combined 
dramatic  and  symphonic  effects.  As  an  opera  composer  he  was  not  successful, 
but  he  seized  upon  the  orchestral  experiments  of  the  contemporary  operatic 
composers,  and  endeavored  to  express  theatrical  ideas  by  means  of  the  orchestra 
alone.  Henceforth  the  power  of  description  was  to  be  entrusted  to  music  itself 
and  not  to  the  accessories  of  the  stage. 

Beriioz  represents  the  ultra-reahstic  school  of  instrumental  music.  His  works 
are  the  reflection  of  his  own  temperament  and  individuality.  His  somewhat 
eccentric  genius  displayed  itself  in  grandiose,  weird  and  picturesque  effects,  in 
exaggeration,  morbidness,  vivid  portrayal,  and  in  extravagant  orchestral  demands. 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrarions,  Examples  48  to  57. 


0 

90  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

The  primary  object  was  tone-color  in  its  own  right,  an  object  that  was  foreign 
to  the  more  aesthetic  ideals  of  the  classicists.  He  was  the  most  daring  orchestral 
writer  that  has  ever  lived,  but  his  originality  was  confined  to  the  scoring  rather 
than  to  the  musical  substance  of  his  works.  When  transcribed  for  pianoforte 
they  lose  their  fascination.  He  was  a  veritable  poet  in  sound,  and  he  sought  in 
every  possible  way  to  intensify  characteristic  expression. 

To  enlarge  upon  the  details  of  BerUoz's  instrumentation  would  be  futile,  for 
his  standard  treatise  is  a  familiar  book  of  reference  to  all  music  lovers.  It  is  there- 
fore permissible  to  make  mention  of  only  the  most  important  of  his  innovations. 
Moreover,  in  order  to  realize  the  magnitude  of  Berlioz's  achievements,  one  should 
keep  clearly  in  mind  the  exact  extent  to  which  orchestral  evolution  had  advanced 
before  his  day;  for  many  effects  that  were  then  strikingly  new  are  now  the  property 
of  all  and  excite  no  comment.  The  distinctive  features  of  his  orchestration  are 
power  of  musical  description;  new  combinations,  new  effects,  new  treatment; 
insight  into  the  characteristics  of  the  instruments  whereby  their  possibilities  both 
individual  and  collective  are  demonstrated ;  excessive  polyphony  and  comphcated 
rhythm.  He  removed  many  prejudices  even  though  many  of  his  experiments 
are  impracticable. 

The  "  Symphonic  fantastique  —  An  Episode  in  the  Life  of  an  Artist "  offers 
the  best  illustrations  for  studying  his  programmatic  methods.  The  dimensions 
of  the  orchestra  are  kept  within  bounds,  being  augmented  by  but  a  few  additional 
instruments  such  as  two  opheicleides  and  two  pair  of  kettle-drums.  ^*^  No 
more  poetic  duet  or  instrumental  dialogue  can  be  found  than  that  between  the 
oboe  and  English  horn  in  the  third  movement  —  "In  the  Fields" ^^  —  where  they 
represent  two  lovers  in  the  guise  of  a  shepherd  and  shepherdess.  The  March  to 
Execution,  (*'^  and  the  Witches'  Revel  are  fine  examples  of  dramatic  intensity 
and  accentuated  volume  of  sound.  "Lelio,"  a  symphonic  poem  with  vocal  music, 
which  was  intended  as  a  sequel  to  the  "Symphonic  fantastique,"  contains  parts 
for  four  clarinets.  This  was  consistent  with  Berlioz's  tendency  to  employ  homo- 
geneous tone-color  in  full  four-part  harmony.  The  pianoforte  is  also  introduced 
into  the  Finale  of  the  same  work.  The  huge  dimensions  of  the  Requiem  or 
"Messe  des  Morts"  are  exceptional  and  should  not  be  cited  as  being  typical  of 
Berlioz's  usual  methods  of  scoring.  Tremendous  combinations  are  brought  into 
use  for  the  Sanctus,  the  Tuba  minim,  and  the  Agnus  Dei.  They  include  twelve 
horns,  sixteen  trombones,  and  eight  pair  of  kettle-drums.  Of  uttermost  impres- 
siveness  is  the  Tuba  mirum  with  its  four  separate  orchestras  of  brass  instruments 
stationed  at  the  four  comers  of  the  stage  or  of  the  auditorium  itself.  The  various 
types  of  instruments  of  percussion  received  the  most  careful  consideration  even 
to  minuteness  of  detail.     The  Requiem  presents  one  of  the  earliest  examples 

(•)  Ex.  51.  (b)  Ex.  49-  (<=>  Ex.  52,  53,  54- 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT  91 

of  employing  three  flutes.  Berlioz  selected  the  viola  as  the  central  figure  for 
his  symphony  "Harold  en  Italie."  ''^^  Its  functions  are  to  impersonate  Childe 
Harold  himself,  to  portray  his  impressions  and  emotions,  to  supply  the  r61e,  so  to 
speak,  of  a  vocal  interpreter.  The  ravishing  effects  elicited  from  the  harmonics 
of  divided  violins  combined  with  those  of  the  harp  will  be  recalled  in  the 
Queen  Mab  scherzo  of  "Romeo  et  Juhette."  The  score  of  the  Biblical  trilogy 
"L'Enfance  du  Christ"  contains  some  curious  passages  of  interwoven  viola  and 
'cello  parts.  The  charming  ballet  is  performed  by  three  flutes  and  a  harp. 
Berlioz's  greatest  work  is  unquestionably  the  dramatic  legend  "La  Damnation  de 
Faust."  Nothing  can  be  daintier  than  the  Dance  of  the  Sylphs;  nothing  sadder 
than  the  portrayal  of  Marguerite's  remorse  by  an  English  horn;  nothing  more 
brutal  than  the  Chorus  of  Students,  accompanied  by  viola,  double-bass,  bassoon, 
horn  and  tuba  —  all  in  unison. 

In  conclusion,  Berlioz  must  be  accredited  with  having  anticipated  many 
effects  that  were  subsequently  elaborated  upon  by  Wagner.  Unfortunately  the 
potency  of  Berlioz's  music  depends  almost  entirely  upon  orchestral  tone-color; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  unadorned  substance  of  Wagner's  music  will  withstand 
the  closest  scrutiny.  Berlioz  frequently  assigned  to  the  orchestra  and  specially 
to  the  strings  a  large  number  of  independent  parts  which  were  further  enhanced 
by  simultaneously  contrasted  rh}1:hm.  This  contrast  was,  moreover,  applied 
to  instruments  of  the  same  group,  such  as  first  and  second  violins.  The 
violins  are  divided  at  times  into  as  many  as  six  and  eight  parts,  the  'cellos  into 
four,  whereas  in  "Cinq  mai"  he  wrote  five  actual  parts  for  the  double-basses. 
He  appreciated  the  true  value  of  the  viola,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  harp 
into  the  symphonic  orchestra.  The  wind-instruments  are  often  split  up  into 
what  might  be  called  separate  little  orchestras.  Families  of  affihated  tone-color 
are  represented  by  three  and  frequently  four  members.  It  was  Berlioz  that 
discovered  the  richness  of  pianissimo  brass  effects,  and  the  substitution  of  the 
tuba  for  the  opheicleide  is  due  largely  to  him.  He  made  divers  experiments  with 
many  varieties  of  instruments  of  percussion  apart  from  those  with  kettle-drums. 
In  the  Te  Deum  for  three  choirs,  orchestra  and  organ,  no  less  than  five  pair  of 
cymbals  are  required.  His  occasional  demands  for  an  enormous  apparatus  were 
certainly  extravagant;  nevertheless  he  rarely  used  the  full  force  of  their  combined 
strength  excepting  in  isolated  cases. 

(d)  Ex.  56,  57. 


92  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

n. 

Liszt  (1811-1886).  It  is  not  proposed  to  analyze  Liszt's  rich  and  heavy 
orchestration,  for  the  importance  of  his  orchestral  works  consists  rather  of  the 
bearing  they  have  upon  the  unfettered  form,  the  freedom  of  tonality  and  the 
novelty  of  treatment  that  characterize  the  New  German  School.  The  scoring 
of  his  symphonic  poems  is  masterful,  highly  colored  and  ingenious.  But  although 
it  bears  the  unmistakable  stamp  of  his  own  personality,  the  orchestration  embodies 
nothing  conspicuously  new.  Beethoven  and  the  early  romanticists,  Berhoz,  and 
above  all  Wagner  were  his  models  in  instrumentation.  Favored  by  the  oppor- 
tunities afforded  him  in  consequence  of  his  precocious  genius  when  but  a  mere 
child,  Liszt's  impressionable  temperament  seized  upon  the  progressive  tendencies 
of  the  times,  thereby  strengthening  the  already  half-formed  conviction  that 
music  should  be  descriptive,  representative,  reproductive,  realistic.  After  hearing 
Berlioz's  "Episode  de  la  vie  d'un  artiste"  he  proceeded  to  develop  his  own  talent 
along  similar  though  individual  lines,  and  thus  became  the  champion  of  German 
"program"  music.  As  has  been  previously  stated,  these  doctrines  of  Berlioz  and 
of  Liszt  were  destined  to  be  reflected  in  Wagner's  works,  for  though  the  latter 
at  first  condemned  such  doctrines  in  no  uncertain  terms,  his  opinions  subsequently 
underwent  a  radical  change.  In  his  monograph  on  Liszt's  symphonic  poems  he 
says :  —  "  Program-music  does  not  aim  to  override  speech  or  the  plastic  arts  and 
represent  things  accessible  to  them  only,  but  rather  forms  a  special  kind  of  union 
of  two  independent  factors:  poetry  and  music." 

Now  although  Beethoven's  "Pastoral"  symphony,  Mendelssohn's  "Fingal's 
Cave'*  and  Raff's  "Lenore"  were  all  in  the  direct  evolutionary  line  of  descriptive 
music,  Liszt  soon  perceived  that  classic  forms  were  indeed  the  ideal  vehicle  for 
abstract  and  purely  aesthetic  music,  but  could  not  be  successfully  applied  to 
portray  a  series  of  emotions,  events  or  ideas.  This  discovery  led  him  to  modify 
the  cyclic  form  of  the  symphony  which  became  transformed  into  the  s)Tnphonic 
poem  with  its  continuity  of  music,  monothematic  principle  and  absence  of  conven- 
tional formulas.  He  retained  all  the  symphonic  expedients  of  thematic  develof>- 
ment,  but  form  was  now  subjective  to  the  program.  His  methods  were  simpler 
and  can  be  more  readily  grasped  than  those  of  Berlioz,  The  range  of  subject  was 
cosmopolitan,  and  the  introduction  of  national  traits,  such  as  the  Hungarian  ele- 
ment, resulted  in  what  Dickinson  calls  "shaping  and  coloring  the  work  through 
imagined  correspondences."  Liszt's  symphonic  poem  "Les  Preludes"  affords  the 
best  illustration  of  his  aims  and  ideals.  "Eine  Faust  Symphonie"  embodies  the 
suggestion  of  personal  qualities  by  means  of  music.  The  oratorios  "Christus'* 
and  "Die  Legende  der  heiligen  Elizabeth"  display  novel  treatment  as  well  as  a 
departure  from  traditional  forms. 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT  93 


III. 

(*)  Wagner  (1813-1883).  The  recorder  of  the  history  of  music  and  of 
orchestration  can  find  no  more  inexhaustive  topic  than  when  he  approaches  that 
of  Richard  Wagner's  epoch-making  innovations.  What  is  more,  the  literature 
in  connection  therewith  is  so  voluminous,  that  opportunity  for  even  the  slightest 
original  deduction  is  denied  him.  No  alternative  is  left  him  other  than  to 
restate  in  condensed  form  what  the  cardinal  features  of  Wagner's  ideals  and 
reforms  were.  Such  a  review  is  indeed  indispensable  if  these  pages  are  to  be 
complete. 

At  the  time  that  Wagner  entered  upon  his  career,  German  dramatic  art  was 
largely  under  the  subjection  of  Meyerbeer,  for  Weber  had  not  yet  won  universal 
popularity.  The  singer  still  reigned  supreme;  dramatic  orchestration  was 
primarily  realistic  and  bombastic.  Wagner  himself  betrayed  in  his  earlier  works 
how  tempting  and  insidious  the  influence  of  Meyerbeer's  dazzling  mannerisms 
and  idiosyncrasies  could  be.  Moreover,  in  order  to  realize  the  full  significance 
of  Wagner's  artistic  growth,  one  should  not  lose  sight  of  his  youthful  enthusiasm 
for  Italian  melody,  even  though  his  subsequent  creations  proved  him  to  be  a 
Teuton  through  and  through,  both  in  sentiment  and  in  art. 

The  highest  ideals  of  German  opera  culminated  in  the  music  dramas 
of  Wagner.  As  musician,  poet,  dramatist,  and  master  of  scenic  effects  and 
theatrical  requirements,  he  grew  to  be  the  champion  of  national  art,  a  self- 
appointed  reformer  not  alone  of  opera  as  an  end  to  itself,  but  as  a  means  whereby 
the  conditions  of  social  life  might  be  inspired  and  uplifted.  And  the  remarkable 
concentration  of  his  musical  thought,  his  rare  gifts  as  a  pxjet,  and  his  noble 
histrionic  conceptions  proved  him  worthy  of  the  task.  The  philosophical  aspect 
of  this  attainment  embodies  intimate  connection  between  drama  and  music; 
merging  of  voice  and  orchestra;  intensification  and  completion  of  the  singer's 
thought  by  means  of  the  orchestra;  finally,  dramatic  illusion  whereby  conditions 
of  mind  rather  than  dramatic  situations  are  portrayed.  By  developing  the  so- 
called  Leit-motiv,  Wagner  discovered  a  most  potent  factor  for  recalling  past  events, 
for  emphasizing  those  present,  and  for  anticipating  those  of  the  future.  The 
Leit-motiv  was,  moreover,  particularly  well  adapted  to  reveal  the  true  conceptions 
of  the  composer  himself.  Vividness  of  portrayal  was  enhanced  by  means  of 
intricate  combinations  of  melodies  and  figures,  free  chromatic  harmony,  imfet- 
tered  modulation,  and  elaborately  conceived  dramatic  as  well  as  thematic 
development  toward  some  supreme  climax.  The  application  of  the  Leit-motiv 
theorem  was  conducive  to  greater  license  in  the  treatment  of  vocal  interpretation. 

{*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Exaroples  67  to  75. 


94  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

A  fusion  of  parlante  and  the  arioso  was  the  result,  and  in  later  works  the  compara- 
tively unintelligible  enunciation  of  combined  vocal  forces  was  obviated  by 
discarding  the  chorus  almost  altogether. 

Retrospection  shows  us  that  there  were  originally  three  distinct  divisions  in 
opera:  the  recitative,  the  aria,  and  the  ritornello.  At  first  the  ritornello  was  but 
the  repetition  of  the  cadence,  but  developed  subsequently  into  a  transitory  period 
intended  to  complete  an  unfinished  vocal  phrase  or  to  describe  the  action  on  the 
stage.  Later,  a  union  of  these  three  distinct  divisions  resulted  in  the  arioso,  or 
fragmentary  cantilena  joined  to  recitativo.  The  parlante  or  musical  declamation 
over  a  melodic  phrase  in  the  orchestra  originated  in  opera-buffa  as  developed  by 
Piccini  and  Paesiello;  subsequently  Spontini  transplanted  it  into  serious  opera. 
It  is  equivalent  in  spoken  drama  to  melodramatic  recitation.  Wagner's  style  is 
therefore  nothing  more  than  an  additional  link  in  the  chain  of  natural  evolution. 

The  pith  of  Wagner's  ideals  may  be  summed  up  by  saying  that  he  aimed  to 
substitute  a  noble  form  of  art  in  the  place  of  mere  pleasure-giving  and  sensational 
fabrications.  Music,  poetic  ideas,  action  and  stage  setting  were  all  to  be  worthy 
of  the  subject  intended  for  presentation.  His  choice  of  subject  for  dramatization 
was  restricted  to  such  as  could  embody  characters  capable  of  being  treated  morally 
and  intellectually  as  well  as  aesthetically.  Wagner  above  all  others  defined  the 
true  mission  of  German  national  art  and  guided  her  to  a  tangible  realization  of 
that  mission. 

IV. 

Wagner's  operas  and  music  dramas  may  be  divided  into  either  of  two  general 
classifications.  The  first  treats  of  the  musical  contents  and  structural  form  of  his 
dramas,  and  of  the  evolution  of  his  philosophical  ideas.  The  second  relates  solely 
to  dififerentiated  style  of  orchestration  and  numerical  distribution  of  instruments. 

The  first  classification  embodies  three  distinct  groups.  The  first  of  these 
groups  contains  all  of  Wagner's  earlier  attempts  including  "Rienzi,"  which  is 
modelled  according  to  the  French  and  Italian  "historic"  school.  With  the 
exception  of  "Eine  Faust  Ouvertiire"  which  belongs  also  to  this  category,  only 
occasional  indications  of  marked  genius  are  to  be  found  in  these  works.  The 
second  group  includes  "Der  Fliegende  Hollander,"  "Tannhauser"  and  "Lohen- 
grin." These  display  a  radical  change  in  style,  form  and  treatment,  pronounced 
originality,  continuity  of  music  and  a  fusion  of  recitative  and  aria.  The  topics 
chosen  for  dramatization  treat  of  German  myths,  mediaeval  legends,  and  chival- 
rous ideals.  Indications  of  the  Leit-motiv  principle,  though  used  in  an  unobtru- 
sive manner,  are  in  evidence.  The  musical  forms  are  not  yet  influenced  by  the 
profundity  of  thought  and  reflection  that  characterizes  the  works  belonging  to  the 


THE    NEW   MOVEMENT  95 

third  group.  The  third  and  last  group  includes  "Tristan  und  Isolde,"  "Die 
Meistersinger  von  Niimberg,"  "Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,"  and  "Parsifal." 
The  complete  fulfilment  of  Wagner's  philosophical  theories  are  here  exposed. 
Wealth  of  harmony,  characteristic  rhythm  and  intensity  of  expression  are  com- 
bined with  poetic  reasoning,  depth  of  thought  and  vivid  dramatization.  The 
centre  of  gravity,  so  to  speak,  is  transferred  to  the  orchestra.  Sprech-singen  is 
emphasized,  whereas  the  Leit-motiv  principle  reaches  its  full  development. 


The  second  classification,  relating  to  differentiated  style  of  orchestration,  is 
popularly  divided  into  three  groups,  but  a  division  into  four  groups  would  seem 
more  appropriate  to  the  present  writer.  Wagner's  earliest  orchestral  attempts 
need  not  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  so  the  first  group  may  include  only 
"Rienzi,"  "Der  Fliegende  Hollander"  and  "Tannhauser."  The  scores  of  these 
works  do  not  display  radical  departure  from  contemporary  methods  excepting  in 
polyphonic  treatment  and  individualistic  coloring.  The  instruments  of  wood  are 
as  yet  represented  only  in  pairs,  although  aheady  a  cor  anglais  and  a  bass-clarinet 
are  regularly  employed.  The  addition  of  a  second  piccolo  flute,  a  second  English 
horn  and  a  third  bassoon  is  but  exceptional.  The  numerical  distribution  of 
strings  and  the  constituency  of  the  brass  are  normal.  Entirely  new  tendencies  are 
discovered  in  "Lohengrin"  and  "Tristan  und  Isolde"  which  comprise  the  second 
group,  since  each  wood-wind  family  is  now  represented  by  three  instruments. 
The  number  of  strings  are  augmented  so  as  to  balance  the  wood-wind,  as  well  as 
in  consequence  of  their  own  frequent  sub-division;  but  the  brass  is  the  same  as  in 
Group  I.  The  magnitude  of  the  Nibelungen  Tetralogy  gave  rise  to  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  exceptional  third  group.  The  augmentation  affects  both  the  wood 
and  the  brass.  The  wood-winds  are  divided  into  families  of  four  each,  and  the 
same  principle  is  applied  to  the  brass.  Strings,  harps  and  battery  are  augmented 
in  proportion.  The  reason  for  regarding  "Die  Meistersinger"  and  "Parsifal" 
as  representatives  of  a  separate  fourth  group  is  that  in  the  former,  Wagner  reverted 
to  the  orchestra  of  Groups  I  and  II,  whereas  the  number  of  mstruments  used  in 
"Parsifal"  correspond  to  those  in  "Tristan."  Notwithstanding,  the  orchestra- 
tion and  the  treatment  of  instruments  for  both  "  Die  Meistersinger"  and  "  Parsifal" 
embody  a  composite  style  that  frequently  suggests  certain  traits  peculiar  to  the 
Tetralogy.  They  may,  therefore,  be  rightfully  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  distinct 
group  by  themselves. 

We  need  not  here  concern  ourselves  again  with  the  first  mentioned  philosophi- 
cal and  aesthetic  classification.  On  the  other  hand,  the  purpose  of  these  pages 
certainly  demands  some  further  analysis  of  the  second  orchestral  classification. 


96  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


GROUP  I.       RIENZI;   DER   FLIEGENDE   HOLLANDER;    TANNHAUSER. 

Strings;  i  or  2  harps. 

1  piccolo  flute  (sometimes  2);  2  flutes;  2  oboes;  i  English  horn  (rarely  2);  2 
clarinets;  i  bass-clarinet;  2  bassoons  (sometimes  3  bassoons  or  an  additional 
contra-bassoon). 

4  homs  (of  which  at  least  2  are  chromatic);  2  chromatic  trumpets  (often 
3);  3  trombones  (2  tenor,  i  bass);  i  bass-tuba. 

2  kettle-drums  (sometimes  3);  further  instruments  of  percussion. 

"Rienzi"  was  first  given  at  Dresden  in  1842.  Of  its  orchestration  little  need 
be  said.  Being  influenced  by  Meyerbeer  and  the  French  dramatic  traditions, 
the  scoring  embodies  much  that  is  extravagant  and  bombastic,  though  many 
instrumental  passages  of  surprising  beauty  are  by  no  means  absent.  What  might 
be  called  the  composite  of  rich,  velvet  tone-color  pecuHar  to  Wagner's  orchestral 
palette  is  already  noticeable  —  a  coloring  that  was  not  attained  even  by  Spontini, 
Meyerbeer  or  Hal^vy.  "Der  FUegende  Hollander"  (Dresden,  1843)  revolu- 
tionized at  one  stroke  the  dramatic  functions  of  orchestration  as  well  as  the  treat- 
ment of  instruments,  even  if  the  combinations  themselves  are  not  radically  different 
from  contemporary  procedure.  In  this  transition  work  Wagner  revealed  the 
future  path  he  was  destined  to  pursue.  The  innovation  of  continuity  and  alliance 
of  music,  poetry,  scenes  and  action  proved  that  his  latent  powers  had  already 
begun  to  unfold  themselves.  "Der  Fhegende  Hollander"  is  the  direct  successor 
to  Weber's  romantic  operas,  and  in  detail  and  color  it  resembles  Marschner's 
"  Hans  Heiling."  For  the  first  time  he  made  use  of  the  German  myth.  He  drew 
freely  upon  a  naturalistic  use  of  chromatics  and  of  astounding  brass  effects  for 
portraying  the  tempest,  called  into  requisition  the  most  characteristic  accents  of 
the  wood-wind  to  depict  the  gloomy  atmosphere  of  the  Northern  seas,  and  elabor- 
ated upon  Weber's  use  of  the  homs  for  romantic  episodes.  His  subsequent 
predilection  for  divided  strings  is  already  to  be  found  in  a  modified  form.  In  a 
word,  the  entire  work  is  imbued  with  virile  force  and  truthful  expression.  Its 
successor,  "Tannhauser"  (Dresden,  1845  —  Paris,  1861),  follows  along  similar 
lines  but  displays  greater  advance  both  in  the  handling  of  the  mediaeval  legend 
itself  and  in  style  of  orchestration.  Of  decidedly  modem  effect  is  the  condensed 
declamatory  style  of  Tannhauser  in  the  last  act,  as  well  as  the  powerful  sweep  of 
the  violins  in  the  Overture,  the  passage  for  4-part  violas  in  the  March,  and  the 
important  r61e  assigned  to  the  harp  throughout  the  opera.  An  admirable  illus- 
tration of  writing  for  unsupported  wood-wind  accompanies  the  exit  of  Elizabeth  in 
the  third  act.  Her  grief  and  resignation  could  have  found  no  more  faithful  inter- 
preter than  that  solo  for  bass-clarinet  beneath  syncopated  chords  of  gentle  and 
tender-voiced  flutes.    The  12  homs  on  the  stage  in  the  first  act,  and  the  12  tmm- 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


97 


pets  for  the  March  in  the  second  act  are  treated  in  a  novel  and  interesting  manner 
that  bears  but  slight  resemblance  to  the  previous  experiments  of  the  "  historic  " 
school. 

In  thus  briefly  analyzing  the  general  characteristics  of  this  first  group,  it  is 
seen  that  in  relation  to  practical  instrumentation,  only  the  brass  was  especially 
affected.  The  incorporation  of  regularly  employed  chromatic  horns  and  tnmi- 
pets  afforded  completeness  and  freedom.  The  use  of  three  trumpets,  which  is 
also  to  be  found  in  the  scores  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann,  balanced  the  trom- 
bones; and  the  substitution  of  the  tuba  for  the  opheicleide  yielded  greater  sonority 
as  well  as  a  closer  aflSnity  in  tone-color  to  that  of  the  trombones  themselves. 

GROUP    n.      LOHENGRIN;    TRISTAN  UNO  ISOLDE. 

Strings;  i  or  2  harps  (frequently  2  individual  parts). 

1  or  2  piccolo  flutes;  3  flutes;  2  oboes  and  i  English  horn  (or  3  oboes);  2 
clarinets  and  i  bass-clarinet  (or  3  clarinets) ;  3  bassoons. 

4  chromatic  horns;  3  trumpets;  3  trombones;  i  bass-tuba. 

2  or  3  kettle-drums;  instruments  of  percussion. 

"Lohengrin"  was  first  performed  at  Weimar  in  1850  under  the  direction  of 
Liszt.  It  bears  a  striking  relation  to  Weber's  "Euryanthe,"  but  exhibits,  never- 
theless, entirely  new  tendencies.  It  breathes  the  very  atmosphere  of  chivalrous 
splendor,  embodies  ideal  purity  of  sentiment  and  expression,  and  supplants 
traditional  form  by  means  of  continuous  and  absolutely  flexible  melody.  Con- 
spicuous is  the  reconstruction  of  the  orchestra  in  that  the  strings  are  much  divided, 
and  the  wood-winds  are  represented  by  families  of  three  instead  of  two  instru- 
ments. Both  Meyerbeer  and  Berlioz  had  made  use  of  such  triplets  of  uniform 
tone-color,  but  Wagner  was  the  first  to  do  so  consistently.  Not  only  were  the 
resources  for  obtaining  variety  of  individual  and  also  of  combined  tonal  effect 
thereby  increased,  but  the  ensemble  of  the  full  orchestra  acquired  greater  firmness 
and  sonority  as  well.  Striking  and  entirely  new  effects  confront  us  on  every  hand. 
The  string  writing  is  of  surpassing  beauty,  whether  illustrated  by  the  division  of 
violins  in  their  ethereal  range,  or  by  passages  assigned  to  divided  violas  and  'cellos 
combined  with  the  harp.  It  is,  however,  primarily  the  wood-wind  that  is  treated 
in  a  particularly  novel  manner.  Familiar  examples  containing  rare  tonal  tints 
and  intense  depth  of  sentiment  are  those  associated  with  Elsa's  first  entry,  or  with 
the  dramatic  situation  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  second  act,  where  the  English  horn, 
clarinet,  bass-clarinet,  bassoons  and  'cellos  are  most  effectively  combined.  The 
cathedral  scene  in  the  second  act  presents  another  complete  exposition  of  unsup- 
ported wood-wind.  Not  imtil  1859  was  the  score  of  "Tristan  und  Isolde"  com- 
pleted, for  Wagner  was  simultaneously  at  work  on  the  "Meistersinger"  and  the 
"Ring";  moreover,  after  the  first  performance  of  "Lohengrin,"  fifteen  dreary 


98  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

years  elapsed  before  "Tristan"  was  first  presented,  which  finally  took  place  in 
Munich  in  1865.  The  exposition  of  this  Keltic  legend  is  marked  by  splendor  of 
color  and  musical  mtricacy.  Although  it  ushers  in  the  beginning  of  Wagner's 
third  creative  period  whereby  the  logical  unfolding  of  his  ideas  of  reform  is  carried 
out,  the  work  is  properly  included  in  the  second  group  of  the  "orchestral"  classi- 
fication, since  the  numerical  distribution  of  instrumental  parts  is  practically  iden- 
tical with  that  in  "Lohengrin."  However,  the  scoring  is  of  a  far  higher  degree  of 
intensity.  It  abounds  in  every  conceivable  shade  of  composite  tone-color,  of 
striking  contrasts,  of  inspiring  outbursts.  One  of  the  most  magnetic  features  is 
the  impassioned  yet  melancholy  tint  that  envelops  the  entire  work  as  it  were  in 
its  veiled  embrace.  The  attainment  of  this  objective  colors  much  of  the  orches- 
tration, as  exemplified,  for  instance,  by  the  predominance  of  violoncellos  in  four 
parts  as  well  as  by  the  combination  of  oboe,  English  horn,  horn  and  bassoon  soli 
in  the  Vorspiel.  Again,  a  subdued  yet  intense  impression  is  caused  by  the  union 
of  English  horn,  bassoon  and  trombones  in  the  first  act  during  the  scene  between 
Tristan  and  Isolde.  Astounding  skill  is  displayed  in  the  development  of  thematic 
treatment  leading  to  ever  alternating  climaxes,  anticlimaxes,  and  monumental 
finales. 

In  the  above  second  group,  the  orchestra  is  enlarged  chiefly  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  triplets  of  wood-wind  instruments.  The  English  horn  and  the  bass-clari- 
net are  employed  as  components  of  their  respective  families  rather  than  as  solo 
interpreters.  They  are  replaced  by  a  third  oboe  and  a  third  clarinet  in  concerted 
forte  numbers  of  extended  length.  No  further  purely  practical  innovations  are  to 
be  noted  other  than  a  logical  augmentation  of  the  string  band  and  progressive 
treatment  of  the  brass. 

(If  the  topics  of  this  review  were  subject  to  despotic  chronological  sequence, 
it  would  be  necessary,  at  this  point,  to  touch  upon  the  characteristics  of  "Die 
Meistersinger,"  for  that  work  was  first  performed  at  Munich  in  1868,  three  years 
after  "Tristan"  and  one  year  before  "Das  Rheingold."  As  already  suggested, 
however,  the  scoring  of  "Die  Meistersinger"  is  such  as  to  make  it  advisable  to 
include  it  in  a  separate  fourth  group  together  with  "Parsifal.") 

GROUP  in.      DER  RING  DES  NIBELUNGEN. 

16  first  violins;  16  seconds;  12  violas;  12  violoncellos;  8  double-basses. 
6  harps  (exceptionally  in  6  individual  parts). 

1  or  2  piccolo  flutes;  3  flutes;  3  oboes;  i  English  horn;  3  clarinets  (at  times 
a  small  clarinet);  i  bass-clarinet;  3  bassoons;  i  contra-bassoon. 

4  horns  (often  8);  3  trumpets;  i  bass-trumpet;  3  trombones;  i  contrabass- 
trombone;  4  tubas  (tenor  and  bass  );  i  contrabass-tuba. 

2  pair  of  kettle-drums;  instruments  of  percussion. 


THE   NEW    MOVEMENT 


99 


The  Tetralogy  presents  not  only  the  culmination  of  Wagner's  poetic  ideas  and 
philosophical  aspirations,  but  the  final  transformation  in  orchestral  resources  as 
well.  The  premiere  of  "Das  Rheingold"  took  place  in  1869  in  Munich,  followed 
in  1876  by  the  first  performance  of  the  entire  "Ring"  at  Bayreuth.  The  music 
of  the  "Ring"  is  so  inseparably  welded  to  the  drama  that,  apart  from  certain  strik- 
ing exceptions,  much  of  it  loses  its  significance  when  performed  as  "  absolute 
music"  away  from  the  stage.  At  first  sight  the  requisition  made  for  so  mighty 
an  aggregation  of  instruments  must  have  been  indeed  terrifying  to  a  "Herm 
Kapellmeister"  of  the  old  operatic  school,  but  closer  inspection  of  the  orchestra- 
tion reveals  the  fact  that  the  glories  of  this  noble  tableau  are  obtained  by  masterful 
contrasts  of  detached  little  groups  of  uniform  tone-color,  rather  than  by  cumula- 
tive tone  quality  and  quantity.  Space  forbids  more  than  a  cursory  glance  at  a 
very  few  of  these  novel  characteristics  in  details  of  instrumentation.  "Das 
Rheingold"  shows,  on  the  whole,  great  reserve  in  the  simultaneous  employment 
of  large  forces.  For  instance,  the  scene  of  the  Rhine  maidens  is  accompanied  by 
the  most  transparent  orchestration.  Many  variations  in  the  use  of  unmixed  tone- 
color  could  be  cited,  such  as  three  oboes  and  English  horn  by  themselves;  English 
horn  with  three  bassoons;  horns  alone,  or  with  bassoons,  or  with  bass-tuba.  One 
of  the  most  striking  examples  is  to  be  found  in  the  fourth  scene  where  the  chord 
of  the  diminished  seventh  is  assigned  to  the  lower  notes  of  three  clarinets  and  a 
bass-clarinet.  The  same  consistent  use  of  homogeneous  quartets  marks  the 
deployment  of  the  brass.  The  tubas  appear  entirely  alone,  as  do  also  the  four 
trumpets  in  combination  with  the  four  trombones.  The  final  scene  presents  one 
of  the  exceptional  instances  of  six  independent  parts  for  harps.  The  first  act  of 
"Die  Walkiire"  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the  present  writer,  the  most  perfect  specimen 
of  dramatic  writing  in  the  literature  of  music.  ^^^  Here  again,  the  avoidance  of 
massive  scoring  is  particularly  to  be  noted  throughout  almost  the  entire  act.  And 
what  other  instruments  could  have  attained  that  maximum  intensity  of  expression 
that  characterizes  the  deployment  of  five  solo  violoncellos  ^''^  as  interpreters  of 
tender  longing  and  suppressed  emotion  ?  Some  of  the  most  impressive  effects  are 
obtained  by  means  of  such  comparatively  simple  combinations  as  one  solo  oboe 
supported  by  two  flutes,  a  clarinet  and  a  bassoon,  further  assisted  by  a  second  frag- 
mentary melodic  theme  in  the  'ceUos.  Instances  of  independent  phrases  for  three 
clarinets  and  bass-clarinet  are  again  to  be  found,  and  in  the  third  act,  the  horns  are 
employed  in  six  real  parts.  A  large  majority  of  effects  and  combinations  that 
are  conspicuous  in  "Das  Rheingold"  and  "Die  Walkure"  naturally  reappear  in 
"Siegfried"  and  " Gotterdammerung,"  Further  distinctive  traits  in  "Siegfried" 
are  the  manifold  division  of  violins  and  violoncellos,  the  extensive  arpeggio  pass- 
ages for  violas,  the  employment  of  viola  harmonics,  the  important  idle  assigned 

(a)  Ex.  67  to  73.  (b)  Ex.  67. 


loo  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

to  the  double-basses,  the  composite  tonal  tint  resulting  from  a  reunion  of  the 
clarinet  quartet  and  four  solo  'cellos,  and  the  use  of  bass-  and  double-bass  tubas 
for  impersonating  the  dragon.  Another  prominent  illustration  of  sonorous  yet 
transparent  scoring  is  seen  in  the  scintillating  Forest  Music  in  the  second  act 
and  again  in  "  Gkitterdammening,"  to  which  a  striking  contrast  is  subsequently 
afforded  by  the  solemn  and  massive  harmonies  of  the  tubas  in  Siegfried's  Funeral 
March.  Nor  should  the  prominent  function  of  kettle-drums  throughout  the  entire 
Tetralogy  be  overlooked. 

In  comparing  the  distribution  of  parts  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  groups, 
we  have  seen  that  in  the  first  of  these  the  orchestra  is  normal,  though  the  balance 
of  the  brass  is  improved.  The  augmentation  of  the  second  group  is  effected  by 
employing  three  instruments  in  each  family  of  the  wood-wind.  The  third  group, 
however,  embodies  a  readjustment  of  both  wood  and  brass  into  families  of  four. 
This  requires  a  strong  body  of  strings;  incidentally,  more  harps  are  employed, 
whereas  both  the  number  and  variety  of  instruments  of  percussion  are  increased. 
In  addition  to  four  trumpets  and  four  trombones  there  are  as  many  as  eight  horns 
and  five  tubas.  Not  only  are  these  massed  instruments  never  used  simultaneously, 
but  their  latent  powers  are  further  intended  to  be  modified  by  Wagner's  plan  for 
a  partially  concealed  orchestra  as  at  Bayreuth.  To  the  brass  is  primarily  entrusted 
the  important  function  of  contrasting  three  fundamental  conceptions  in  the 
Tetralogy.  Horns  are  symbolic  of  the  poetic,  of  distant  visions,  of  reminiscences, 
of  imagination,  of  conscience.  Trumpets  and  trombones  represent  a  world  of 
light  midst  the  gods  and  heroes.  Tubas  portray  material  force,  human  suffering, 
fate. 

GROUP  IV.    DIE  MEISTERSINGER    VON    NURNBERG;    PARSIFAL. 

To  classify  these  two  works  under  one  heading  might  at  first  sight  appear 
incongruous,  for  apart  from  the  fact  that  some  dozen  years  separate  the  respective 
periods  of  their  creation,  the  difference  between  them  in  style  and  objective  is  as 
that  of  the  antipodes.  The  comic  features  and  satirical  purpose  of  the  one  bear 
absolutely  no  relation  to  the  mystical  and  devotional  tone  of  the  other.  In  two 
respects,  however,  they  have  some  points  of  affinity.  The  orchestration  of  both 
is  more  like  that  of  "Tristan"  than  of  the  "Ring,"  and  the  harmonies  are,  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  adventitious  corollary  of  intricate  polyphonic  voice-leading. 
This  is,  of  course,  particularly  pronounced  in  "Parsifal,"  but  it  is  in  evidence  in 
"Die  Meistersinger"  as  well.  Both  works  prove  that  the  exceptional  orchestral 
forces  required  for  "Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen"  are  by  no  means  necessary  to 
obtain  sonority,  richness,  exhaustless  variety  and  supreme  dramatic  intensity. 
Again,  none  of  Wagner's  dramas  can  rival  "Die  Meistersinger"  in  musical  power, 
whereas  "Parsifal,"  as  the  exponent  of  Wagner's  religious  views  and  his  attitude 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT  loi 


toward  Christianity,  is  unsurpassed  for  nobility  of  subject  and  dignity  of  treat- 
ment. With  the  performance  of  "Parsifal"  at  Bayreuth  in  1882,  Wagner  ended 
his  stupendous  lifework.  His  death  followed  barely  seven  months  later,  but  he 
had  lived  long  enough  to  witness  the  attainment  of  his  ambitions  and  ideals. 

VI. 

It  is  needless  to  enlarge  upon  the  hostile  criticism  evoked  by  Wagner's  theories, 
for  his  titanic  achievements  have  remained  unscathed  in  the  very  face  of  even  such 
violent  attacks  as  were  hurled  forth  by  Nordau  and  Nietzsche.  Nevertheless, 
the  present  writer  cannot  refrain  from  referring  to  the  petty  antagonism  Wagner 
had  to  endure  as  a  consequence  of  the  narrow-mindedness  and  non-progressive 
spirit  of  many  of  his  most  distinguished  contemporaries.  Even  Rheinberger  was 
not  exempt  from  this  defect,  and  his  attitude  toward  Wagner  must  be  regarded 
as  being  the  more  unaccountable  since  the  memory  of  the  Munich  master  is  to  be 
revered  not  alone  for  the  profound  knowledge,  the  depth  of  feeling,  and  the  refine- 
ment that  revealed  themselves  in  his  teaching  and  composition,  but  for  the  nobility 
of  his  soul  and  the  loftiness  of  his  purpose  as  well.  And  the  close  of  Lobe's  other- 
wise unprejudiced  treatise  on  instrumentation  displays  a  glaring  inconsistency  in 
its  strictures  upon  W^agner's  so-called  overloaded  orchestration.  In  his  anxiety 
to  decry  overzealous  Wagner  worship,  Lobe  made  laborious  efforts  to  select 
examples  that  should  support  his  adverse  criticisms.  This  he  openly  acknow- 
ledges, although  he  admits  that  not  all  of  Wagner's  "  Kraftbilder "  are  scored  in 
so  unfelicitous  a  manner.  One  of  the  two  such  illustrations  cited  by  him  embodies 
the  episodic  climax  in  "Lohengrin"  where  Lisa's  ecstasy  is  portrayed  in 


bel  -  wei 

Lobe  claims  that  the  initial  tones  of  Lisa's  outburst  are  overpowered  and  that 
further,  her  succeeding  phrases  are  marred  rather  than  supported  by  reduplica- 
tion of  oboe  and  clarinet!  No  author  can  convince  his  readers  with  such  biased 
and  absurd  arguments.  To  deliberately  confine  one's-self  to  such  trivial  points 
in  demonstration  of  Wagner's  scoring  is  not  in  keeping  with  the  dignity  of  what  is 
still  a  standard  treatise.  Even  though  it  was  published  as  early  as  1864,  that 
was  the  very  year  in  which  Wagner  was  called  to  Munich  by  King  Ludwig  11, 
By  that  time  his  works  had  already  received  suflScient  recognition  to  command  the 
most  careful  consideration  even  from  pedants.  Lobe's  entire  paragraph  will  bear 
repeating  in  consequence  of  its  very  incongruity:  — 

"In  diesem  Beispiel  sehen  wir  als  Hauptzeichnung  die  Melodic  Lisa's.     Ihr 
Entziicken  ist  herrlich  deklamirt,  aber  fiir  wen  ?    Kann  irgend  ein  Zuhorer  von 


I02  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

dem  Eintritt  dieser  Singstimme,  und  sie  ist  die  wesentliche  oder  soUte  es  doch  sein, 
auch  nur  eine  Ahnung  bekommen?  Drei  Floten,  drei  Oboen,  drei  Klarinetten, 
vier  Homer,  drei  Fagotte,  drei  Trompeten,  drei  Posaunen,  Tuba,  Pauke,  das 
Streichquartett,  der  Konig  und  der  ganze  Frauen-  und  Mannerchor  schreien 
fortissimo  gegen  die  einzelne  Stimme  des  zarten  Wesens  Elsa!  Dieser  Riesen- 
accent  aller  vereinten  Orchester-  und  Chorstimmen  verstummt  nun  zwar  und 
die  Folge  der  Singmelodie  Elsa's  wird  etwas  horbar,  aber  von  einem  rein  und 
deutlich  hervorglanzenden  Gesang  kann  nicht  die  Rede  sein;  den  die  Mitsprache 
der  ersten  Oboe  und  ersten  Klarinette  im  Einklang  —  beilaufig  bemerkt  eine  der 
fatalsten  Verbindungen  dieser  beiden  Instrumente  —  sowie  der  andem  Blasin- 
stnimente  verwischen  und  verzehren  den  Klang  der  Singstimme  und  lassen 
gleichsam  nur  einen  Schatten  derselben  vernehmen." 

VII. 

In  summing  up  the  chief  characteristics  of  Wagner's  perfect  orchestration  it 
is  seen  that  although  he  was  at  first  susceptible  to  tone-color  as  an  end  to  itself, 
he  learned  to  subordinate  it  to  the  demands  of  the  musical  and  poetic  ideas  of  the 
immediate  dramatic  situation.  Greatest  of  masters  for  the  orchestra,  Wagner 
brought  that  organization  to  its  highest  point  of  evolution.  Even  though  the 
scores  of  "Lohengrin"  and  "Tristan"  contain,  with  the  exception  of  bass-clarinet 
and  bass-tuba,  no  instruments  that  had  not  been  employed  by  Haydn  and  Mozart, 
it  was  Wagner  that  emphasized  solidity,  that  made  the  orchestra  firm  and  supple, 
that  increased  its  melodic  as  well  as  harmonic  force,  and  used  it  for  two  definite 
purposes:  to  render  emotion  and  to  portray  action  and  situations.  He  was  for- 
tunate in  being  aided  by  the  rapid  improvements  that  were  taking  place  in  his 
day  in  the  mechanism  of  instruments,  as  well  as  in  the  advance  in  musical  educa- 
tion and  technical  skill  of  orchestral  performers.  His  orchestration  does  not 
deviate  from  well-established  and  approved  traditions,  but  the  grouping  and 
treatment  of  instruments  are  entirely  new.  The  use  of  deep,  sonorous  basses 
never  interferes  with  harmonic  clearness  or  with  the  outline  of  melodic  and 
rhythmic  movement.  The  modem  extreme  development  of  unsupported  wood- 
wind ^''^  is  entirely  due  to  Wagner.  When  his  predecessors  had  had  occasion  to 
employ  an  English  hom  or  a  bass-clarinet,  one  of  the  oboe  or  clarinet  players 
usually  undertook  the  part,  thus  depriving  the  orchestra  of  possible  effects  for  two 
oboes  and  English  hom,  or  two  clarinets  and  bass-clarinet.  This  defect  was 
remedied  by  both  Berlioz  and  Wagner  in  augmenting  the  wood-wind  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  harmonies  of  uniform  tone-color.  The  addition  of  horns  as 
regular  constituents  of  the  second  orchestral  group  ^^'^  lent  smoothness  and  cohe- 

(c)  Ex.  70,  71.  (d)  Ex.  71. 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


103 


sion  to  the  former  somewhat  thin  and  uneven  quality  of  the  combined  wood-wind. 
Seme  of  the  most  mournful  accents  in  Wagner's  orchestra  are  those  obtained  from 
the  velvet  harmonies  of  three  flutes  in  their  lowest  range.  He  regarded  the  clari- 
net ^*^  as  the  most  expressive  solo  wind  instrument  in  the  orchestra,  and  recog- 
nized the  latent  efficiency  of  the  bassoons  whether  as  solo  interpreters  or  in  inde- 
pendent harmonies,  whether  as  bass  to  the  wood-wind  or  together  with  the  horns 
alone.^^^  The  most  radical  changes  are  those  affecting  the  brass.  Nevertheless, 
the  principle  of  using  three  or  four  instruments  of  the  same  family  is  in  reality 
based  upon  Gluck's  and  Mozart's  euphonious  distribution  of  three-part  harmony 
for  trombones.  Of  incalculable  value  was  the  permanent  employment  of  valve- 
horns  and  valve-trumpets,  the  immense  development  in  horn  writing,  and  the 
discarding  of  opheicleides.  A  world  of  majestic  light,  as  exposed  by  the  homo- 
geneity of  trumpets  and  trombones,  is  made  to  stand  out  in  strong  relief  against 
the  tubas'  luxuriant  wealth  of  harmony,  or  the  veiled  yet  picturesque  tonal  tints 
of  horns.  The  introduction  of  a  complete  group  of  tubas  was  certainly  an  entirely 
new  idea.  Much  of  Wagner's  warm  and  rich  orchestration  is  due  to  a  substratum 
of  soft  brass  harmonies  that  are  apparently  not  audible  at  all.  No  composer  knew 
better  than  he  how  to  obtain  the  best  effects  from  instruments  of  percussion  with- 
out overstepping  the  bounds  of  artistic  refinement.  His  use  of  kettle-drums  was 
more  practical  than  that  of  Berlioz;  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  when 
Meyerbeer  or  Berlioz  needed  a  numerical  variety  of  tones  or  rapid  changes  in 
pitch,  it  was  necessary  to  employ  a  number  of  drums  and  several  performers, 
whereas  Wagner  was  able  in  later  years  to  attain  the  same  object  with  fewer  drums, 
in  consequence  of  the  perfecting  of  the  "machine-drum"  which  allows  of  almost 
instantaneous  change  of  pitch.  The  art  of  conducting  received  also  a  powerful 
impetus  from  Wagner,  and  his  untiring  efforts  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  dra- 
matic and  concert  stage  were  ably  seconded  by  Liszt  and  subsequently  by  von 
Billow.  When  exercising  the  functions  of  a  conductor,  one  of  Wagner's  strong 
principles  of  interpretation  consisted  in  modifying  a  tempo  in  accordance  with 
the  momentary  character  of  the  dominating  melodic  themes. 

The  bitterness  of  conflict  over  Wagner's  works  has  expended  itself;  hostile 
criticism  is  now  exceptional.  To-day  Wagner  stands  forth  as  the  accepted  cham- 
pion of  dramatic  reforms,  as  the  most  eminent  composer  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  as  the  greatest  master  of  orchestration  in  the  annals  of  the  world. 


VIII. 

In  these  days  the  "  New  Movement "  is  no  longer  new,  for  the  trend  of  modem 
music  is  ever  progressive.    For  convenience,   however,   this   classification   may 

(e)  Ex.  73.  tf)  Ex.  69,  72. 


I04  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

include  Cornelius,  Bruckner,  Lassen,  A.  Ritter,  Draeseke,  Weingartner,  Nicod€, 
finally  Richard  Strauss. 

Cornelius  (1824)  would  appear  to  be  thus  far  the  only  writer  for  the  German 
stage  since  Wagner  who  has  had  something  decidedly  original  and  lasting 
to  say.  ^'^  Being  a  protdge  of  Liszt,  he  became  an  ardent  partisan  for  Wagnerism. 
The  cool  reception  of  his  "Barbier  von  Bagdad"  when  first  performed  at 
Weimar  in  1858  was  the  immediate  reason  for  causing  Liszt  to  withdraw  from 
that  city  in  disgust.  This  lack  of  appreciation  is  the  more  unaccountable  in  that 
but  eight  years  had  elapsed  since  the  residents  of  Weimar  had  welcomed  Wagner's 
"  Lohengrin  "  with  enthusiasm.  "  Der  Barbier"  was  a  worthy  successor  to  "  Lohen- 
grin"; not  that  the  styles  of  these  two  operas  have  even  the  remotest  affinity  to  each 
other,  but  rather  the  very  originality  of  the  "Barbier"  should  have  commanded 
unquestionable  approval.  However,  the  succeeding  generation  of  theatre-goers  has 
been  pleased  to  commend  the  work  after  a  fashion,  though  it  is  to  be  regretted  that 
this  appreciation  has  not  become  whole-souled  and  universal.  Not  only  is  the 
music  itself  charming  and  vivacious,  and  the  plot  highly  ingenious,  but  the  orches- 
tration is  brimming  over  with  mirth  and  good  humor,  portrays  in  the  most  subtle 
manner  the  amorous  as  well  as  the  sentimental  situations,  and  brings  into  requisi- 
tion some  very  ludicrous  traits  of  instrumentation.  Moreover  the  Finale,  "Sala- 
maleikum,"  is  a  most  magnificent  piece  of  ensemble  writing.  CorneUus  followed 
Wagner  in  writing  all  of  his  texts  himself.  "Der  Cid"  is  less  spontaneous  than 
its  predecessor,  but  the  orchestration  is  that  of  a  master,  being  imbued  with 
genuine  local  coloring  together  with  profound  melancholy,  suppressed  emotion 
and  heroic  outbursts.  It  is  interesting  to  conjecture  what  the  outcome  of 
Cornelius'  setting  of  "Gunlod"  would  have  been,  for  he  left  behind  him  an 
unfinished  text  based  upon  the  elder  Scandinavian  Edda. 

Anton  Bruckner  (1824)  is  commonly  identified  with  the  New  Movement,  but 
he  might  with  equal  propriety  be  rated  as  a  classical-romanticist.  Although  he 
possesses  many  warm  admirers,  the  permanent  value  of  his  writings  is  open  to 
question.  His  formal  structure,  contrapuntal  treatment,  and  thematic  develop- 
ment bear  the  impress  of  a  scholarly  touch,  but  in  spite  of  certain  leanings  toward 
Wagnerian  principles,  his  heavy  style  and  rather  precise  music  have  a  chilling 
effect  upon  the  majority  of  listeners.  The  melodies  are  not  flowing,  the  rhythm 
is  monotonous,  and  the  orchestration,  though  clever,  lacks  buoyancy  and  warmth. 

The  next  four  composers  of  this  somewhat  arbitrary  list  can  be  summarily 
disposed  of,  since  they  have  advanced  the  evolution  of  orchestration  to  no  per- 
ceptible degree.  This  statement  is  by  no  means  intended  to  belittle  the  sterling 
qualities  of  their  musicianship.     All  of  them  have  won  renown  in  their  respective 

(')  See  footnote  on  p^e  118  in  reference  to  the  sensation  recently  created  by  Richard  Strauss' 
opera  "  Salome." 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


105 


fields  of  activity,  and  their  creative  efforts  disclose  broad  culture,  wide  experience, 
and  a  facile  pen.  Their  instrumentation  is  invariably  effective.  Eduard  Lassen 
(1830)  and  Felix  Draeseke  (1835)  took  a  prominent  part  in  propagating  the  tenets  of 
Liszt  and  Wagner.  Draeseke  frankly  declared  himself  for  Wagner,  and  assisted 
him  by  means  of  his  literary  skill.  Lassen  succeeded  Liszt  as  Generalmusik- 
director  of  the  Weimar  Opera.  Similar  to  that  of  many  another  talented  though 
at  first  obscure  aspirant,  the  success  of  his  operas  was  due  to  the  enterprise  of 
Liszt  himself.  During  his  later  years  Lassen  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively 
to  song-writing.  As  recently  as  two  years  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
1903,  he  remarked  to  the  present  writer  that  after  having  studied  and  conducted 
Wagner's  works  as  far  back  as  forty  odd  years  ago,  he  had  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  he  himself  had  no  further  message  to  give  to  the  dramatic  world ;  consequently 
he  withdrew  from  the  arduous  contest.  Alexander  Ritter  (1833)  was  an  able  and 
painstaking  composer,  and  wrote  for  the  opera  as  well  as  for  the  orchestra  alone. 
His  scoring  was  consistent  with  his  scholarship,  but  the  substance  of  his  productions 
embodies  little  that  is  new.  Weingartner  (1853)  is  best  known  as  a  concert  con- 
ductor. His  directing  exercises  a  peculiarly  magnetic  fascination,  and  that  quite 
especially  upon  the  ladies !  His  movements  are  wonderfully  graceful,  and  suggest, 
at  times,  a  subtle  hypnotic  power  flavoring  of  Orientalism. 

In  turning  to  the  magnum  opus  of  Nicode  (1853),  we  find  ourselves  face  to 
face  with  one  of  the  most  interesting  specimens  of  modem  orchestration  —  which 
is  saying  a  great  deal  in  this  age  when  the  art  of  scoring  has  reached  such  stu- 
pendous virtuosity.  "Das  Meer,"  symphonic  ode  for  solo  voices,  male  chorus, 
orchestra,  and  organ,  may  not  reveal  striking  originality  of  subject-matter,  but  it 
is  a  magnificent  exposition  of  realism  and  discloses  the  author's  keen  appreciation 
for  the  imaginative,  the  descriptive,  the  picturesque.  One  could  readily  suppose 
that  Nicode  might  have  been  more  or  less  influenced  by  Rubinstein's  "Ocean 
Symphony,"  but  this  is  not  at  all  the  case.  Nicode's  primary  aim  was  the  acquisi- 
tion of  superb  and  startling  effects  by  means  of  tone-color  pure  and  simple.  His 
technique  is  enormous.  One  of  his  strongest  points  is  the  ability  to  procure  scin- 
tillating tints  by  means  of  multiple  division  of  strings  alone.  By  piling  up  a  large 
number  of  independent  and  seemingly  irreconcilable  melodic  themes  one  on  top  of 
the  other,  a  marvellous  effervescent  polyphony  is  procured.  The  best  example  of 
pure  tone  effect  is  revealed  in  the  movement  entitled  "Phosphorescent  Lights." 
The  modem  symphonic  orchestra  is,  of  course,  employed,  being  further  augmented 
by  an  additional  harp,  and  two  tenor-tubas  with  the  usual  bass-tuba.  The 
battery  assumes  gigantic  proportions  in  that  demand  is  made  for  two  pair  of 
kettle-dmms,  one  pair  of  cymbals,  a  bass-dmm,  a  triangle,  a  gong,  and  a  set  of 
bells.  Even  these  additions  do  not  satisfy  the  composer,  for  behind  the  stage  is 
concealed  a  brass  band  of  three  trumpets,  seven  trombones  and  a  bass-tuba. 


io6  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


IX. 

(*)  Richard  Strauss  (1864).  It  is  universally  conceded  that  the  greatest 
master  of  orchestration  after  Richard  Wagner  is  Richard  Strauss.  The  latter's 
career  thus  far  bears  some  affinity  to  that  of  Mendelssohn  as  regards  early  artistic 
surroundings,  scholarly  training  in  branches  other  than  music,  and  exemption 
from  monetary  anxiety.  But  whereas  Mendelssohn's  affluent  circumstances  and 
prosperous  career  were  imdoubtedly  detrimental  to  the  development  of  profound 
pathos  and  tragic  intensity,  Strauss  has  made  the  demonstration  that  worldly 
cares  and  petty  professional  obstacles  are  not  the  essential  stimuli  for  herculean 
artistic  growth  embodying  the  portrayal  of  experiences  not  personally  experienced. 

(Biography.)  Strauss  was  reared  in  a  schooling  so  orthodox  that  not  even 
his  severest  critics  can  venture  to  deny  his  mastery  of  traditional  usages,  —  indeed, 
in  his  earlier  works  Strauss  has  given  tangible  proof  of  his  ability  to  compose 
in  conservative  forms.  He  is  the  son  of  a  French-horn  player  of  rare  genius, 
whose  memorable  performance  of  his  son's  horn  concerto  first  taught  the  present 
writer  the  latent  possibilities  of  that  instrument.  Strauss  is  said  to  have  pro- 
duced a  polka  at  the  age  of  six,  whereas  already  during  his  boyhood  days  he 
devoted  his  spare  moments  to  writing  orchestral  overtures,  choruses,  sonatas,  and 
the  like.  Although  enrolled  as  a  student  at  the  Gymnasium  and  for  one  year  at 
the  University  of  Munich,  he  was  simultaneously  given  opportunity  to  develop 
his  musical  talents  along  the  prescribed  lines  of  practical  training.  His  public 
career  as  a  composer  may  be  said  to  have  begun  when  two  of  his  choruses  were 
given  at  a  school  concert.  In  1880  he  succeeded  in  having  three  of  his  songs  sung 
at  a  public  concert.  He  was  then  only  sixteen  years  old.  These  minor  achieve- 
ments, however,  fall  into  insignificance  in  comparison  with  the  recognition  awarded 
him  in  the  following  year,  when  Benno  Walther,  concertmeister  of  the  Munich 
Opera,  produced  the  string  quartet,  op.  2,  in  the  course  of  the  annual  series  of 
chamber  concerts.  Walther's  quartet  was  at  that  time  highly  authoritative  in 
musical  circles.  In  the  same  year  Hermann  Levi  performed  the  symphony  in 
D  minor.  Strauss  next  drew  attention  to  himself  with  a  serenade,  op.  7,  for 
thirteen  instruments,  and  thereby  interested  no  less  a  person  than  Hans  von 
Billow.  This  was  destined  to  influence  Strauss'  entire  career,  for  in  1885  he  was 
engaged  as  musical  director  at  Meiningen  in  a  subordinate  though  honorable 
position  to  von  Biilow  himself.  It  was  von  Bulow,  therefore,  that  gave  Strauss 
his  initial  training  as  an  orchestral  conductor,  a  branch  of  art  in  which  he  has  now 
attained  proficiency  only  secondary  to  his  powers  as  a  composer.  At  Meiningen 
he  was  enabled  to  assimilate  not  only  von    Billow's  magnetic  technique    and 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  97  to  103. 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT  107 

authoritative  interpretation,  but  was  also  led  to  grasp  Wagner's  ideals  of  con- 
ducting. In  addition  he  also  appeared  occasionally  as  a  concert  pianist,  and 
meanwhile  completed  his  more  or  less  conservative  symphonic  phantasy  "Aus 
Italien."  Here,  too,  he  came  in  contact  with  the  Wagnerian  enthusiast,  Alex- 
ander Ritter,  an  intimacy  that  had  much  to  do  with  the  subsequent  moulding  of 
his  first  distinctively  original  works,  "Macbeth"  and  "Don  Juan."  Toward  the 
close  of  1885  he  succeeded  von  Biilow  as  conductor  of  the  Meiningen  Orchestra, 
retained  the  post  for  one  season,  and  then  accepted  a  subordinate  position  in  his 
native  city  under  Levi  and  Fischer  at  the  Munich  Royal  Opera.  Like  most 
prophets  in  their  own  countr\',  he  had  to  overcome  the  prejudice  of  some  of  the 
older  gentlemen  of  the  orchestra  who  had  been  colleagues  of  his  father  and  had  seen 
the  son  grow  up.  For  three  years  he  was  now  occupied  with  the  rather  thankless 
task  of  conducting  lesser  operatic  performances,  but  devoted  himself  none  the 
less  with  untiring  effort  to  the  development  of  his  creative  talents,  which  bore 
fruit  in  "Macbeth,"  "Don  Juan"  and  "Tod  und  Verklarung."  In  1889  he  was 
called  to  the  Weimar  Opera,  first  as  subordinate  to  Lassen,  eventually  as  full- 
empowered  potentate.  He  there  married  one  of  the  operatic  singers,  Pauline 
de  Ahne,  daughter  of  a  Bavarian  general.  While  at  Weimar  he  wrote  his  first 
opera,  "  Guntram."  In  1894  Strauss  returned  to  the  Munich  Opera  in  a  capacity 
more  responsible  than  formerly.  His  services  as  a  conductor  of  unusual  ability 
were  by  this  time  much  in  demand  for  special  concert  performances  in  European 
musical  centres.  The  atmosphere  of  his  native  city  must  have  been  particularly 
inspiring  to  his  creative  Muse,  for  from  1894  to  1899  no  less  than  four  mighty 
orchestral  works  emanated  from  his  pen  —  "  Till  Eulenspiegel,"  "  Also  sprach 
Zarathustra,"  "Don  Quixote,"  "Ein  Heldenleben."  In  1899  he  was  called  to 
the  Berlin  Opera  as  an  associate  with  Muck.  It  is  here  that  he  at  present  wields 
the  baton  with  unflagging  zeal,  in  spite  of  his  restless  activity  as  a  composer. 
Thus  far  his  most  important  contributions  to  the  twentieth  century  have  been  the 
opera  "Feuersnoth"  and  the  "Symphonia  Domestica."  ^'^ 

Such  are  the  biographical  outlines  of  an  epoch-making  composer,  an  eminent 
conductor,  and  a  well-trained  pianist  who  has  but  entered  upon  the  fifth  decade 
of  his  lifetime.  Before  proceeding  to  an  examination  of  the  aims  and  ideals  that 
are  at  the  root  of  Strauss'  huge  orchestral  conceptions,  some  comparisons  between 
him  and  his  predecessors  as  suggested  by  Richard  Aldrich  will  bear  citation :  — 

"At  forty  Strauss  is  the  most  commanding  figure  in  the  musical  world  of 
to-day.  It  will  be  an  interesting  disclosure  for  future  years  to  make  as  to  how 
much  of  his  hfework  he  has  already  accomplished,  and  whether  the  sahent  charac- 
teristics are  already  fixed  and  contained  in  what  he  has  done,  or  whether  this  is 
but  a  preparation.     We  may  be  reminded  that  on  their  fortieth  birthdays  Mozart 

(')  See  footnote  on  page  118  in  reference  to  "  Salome." 


Io8  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

and  Schubert  had  put  the  final  seal  upon  their  work,  Mozart  five  years  before, 
Schubert  nine.  Beethoven  had  given  to  the  world  his  first  six  symphonies,  his 
'Fidelio,'  and  the  'Leonore'  overtures,  the  'Coriolanus'  overture,  the  'Egmont* 
music,  the  five  piano  concertos  and  the  violin  concerto,  nine  string  quartets,  includ- 
ing those  dedicated  to  Count  Rasoumoffsky;  the  'Kreutzer'  and  the  earlier  violin 
sonatas,  the  'Waldsteui'  and  the  earlier  piano  sonatas.  Wagner  had  written 
*Rienzi,'  'The  Flying  Dutchman,'  * Tannhauser,'  'Lohengrin,'  'Eine  Faust 
Ouvertiire,'  and  had  conceived  and  partly  executed  'The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung.' 
And  yet  these  two  had  not  given  the  finest  fruitage  of  their  genius.  What  Strauss 
has  done  in  his  younger  manhood  will  not,  perhaps,  be  counted  of  greater  worth. 
Whether,  like  these  two  at  his  age,  he  will  go  on  to  further  development  may  also 
be  curiously  questioned,  and  whether  he  will  turn  aside  from  the  path  in  which 
he  has  already  started.  On  that  path  he  seems  already  to  have  reached  the 
furthest  confines  of  the  territory  he  has  traversed." 

X. 

(Classification  of  Compositions.)  Similar  to  the  works  of  most  com- 
posers who  have  a  genuinely  original  message  to  give  to  the  world,  those 
of  Strauss  may  be  divided  into  distinct  groups  of  differentiated  creative  periods. 
He  has  progressed  step  by  step  through  various  stages  of  development.  Con- 
forming at  first  to  the  conservative  romanticism  founded  upon  traditional  forms 
of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann,  he  soon  came  to  admire  and  emulate  the  doc- 
trines of  Brahms  —  an  influence  that  has  never  been  effaced  from  his  subsequent 
writings  even  though  his  associations  with  von  Bulow  and  Ritter  caused  him  to 
lean  more  and  more  upon  Wagner  and  Liszt  for  the  dominating  thought  of  his 
conceptions.  With  one  stroke,  however,  "Macbeth"  and  "Don  Juan"  went  far 
beyond  the  tenets  of  the  Weimar  coterie,  though  the  succeeding  productions  "Tod 
und  Verklarung"  and  "Guntram"  suggest  what  has  been  called  a  reaction  toward 
Liszt  and  Wagner.  But  with  "Till  Eulenspiegel"  and  "Also  sprach  Zarathustra" 
Strauss  inaugurated  a  permanent  and  ever  advancing  method  of  procedure  dis- 
tinctively individuahstic  and  unprecedented,  that  has  so  far  culminated  in  the 
vast  realistic  tableaux  of  "Don  Quixote"  and  "Ein  Heldenleben." 

(ist  Period.)  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  his  youthful  efforts.  After 
the  small  choruses,  the  songs,  the  string  quartet,  op.  2,  and  the  symphony  in  D 
minor,  there  appeared  some  interesting  experiments  in  various  fields  of  composi- 
tion. The  list  includes  a  pianoforte  sonata,  op.  5 ;  a  sonata  for  violoncello  and 
pianoforte,  op.  6;  the  serenade,  op.  7,  for  wind-instruments,  patronized  by  von 
Biilow;  a  violin  concerto,  op.  8;  "Stimmungsbilder"  for  pianoforte,  op.  9;  the 
French-horn  concerto,  op.  11,  already  referred  to;  a  symphony  in  F  minor,  op. 


THE    NEW   MOVEMENT  109 

12;  a  pianoforte  quartet,  op.  13;  and  "Wanderers  Sturmlied,"  for  six-part  mixed 
chorus  and  orchestra,  op.  14.  This  choral  work  has  been  called  "a  broadly 
flowing  stream  of  polyphonic  vocal  harmony  against  an  elaborate  and  indepen- 
dent orchestral  accompaniment  that  was  something  quite  unprecedented."  The 
above  compositions  comprise  what  might  be  termed  the  first  of  Strauss*  creative 
periods,  having  all  been  written  before  he  was  twenty.  They  present  a  conven- 
tional though  rapid  development  of  and  graduation  from  the  dominating  in- 
fluences of  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  Brahms,  as  suggested  above,  and  gradually 
point  more  and  more  toward  Berlioz,  Liszt,  and  Wagner. 

{2d  Period.)  The  symphony  in  F  minor,  written  in  1883,  may  be  looked 
upon  not  only  as  the  culmination  of  these  earliest  attempts,  but  also  as  the  first 
of  Strauss'  really  significant  orchestral  compositions.  Its  maiden  performance 
took  place  not  in  Germany  but  in  this  country,  when,  in  1884,  Theodore  Thomas 
produced  it  in  New  York  with  the  Philharmonic  Society. 

Several  years  now  elapsed  before  Strauss  was  ready  to  offer  to  the  world  the 
first  of  his  great  symphonic  tone-poems:  "Aus  Italien"  —  sinfonische  Phantasie, 
G-dur  (op.  16,  1886).  This  was  a  marked  advance  upon  the  previous  symphony, 
but  though  it  reveals  the  subsequent  path  Strauss  was  to  pursue,  and  embodies 
complex  polyphony  and  increased  command  over  the  technics  of  orchestration,  it 
is  still  dominated  by  Mendelssohn's  and  Schumann's  subjective  idea  of  program- 
music. 

(jd  Period.)  Not  until  von  Bulow  and  Ritter  had  fathomed  the  true  depth 
of  their  young  associate's  latent  powers  did  he  proceed  to  evolve  his  conceptions 
in  a  language  that  has  startled  the  entire  musical  world. 

"Macbeth"  —  Tondichtung  nach  Shakespeare's  Drama  (op.  23,  1887),  is 
the  first  of  these  vast  color-pictures.  Although  "Don  Juan"  is  to  be  recorded 
as  opus  20,  Friedrich  Rosch,  the  authoritative  reviewer  of  "Ein  Heldenleben," 
places  it  after  "  Macbeth, "  although  classifying  it  also  as  opus  20.  He  gives  the 
date  of  its  completion  as  1888.  Dr.  Riemann's  Dictionary  of  Music,  which  is 
the  most  accurate  book  of  its  kind  in  existence,  seems  for  once  to  be  at  fault  in 
stating  the  various  dates  at  which  Strauss  penned  his  creations.  "Macbeth," 
like  its  successors,  at  once  displays  a  wealth  of  melodic  utterance  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal orchestral  voices,  a  prolific  number  of  themes  and  sub-themes,  and  the  most 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  specific  characteristics  of  the  various  instruments 
as  well  as  with  orchestral  combinations  and  the  resultant  mixture  of  tonal  tints 
thereby  to  be  obtained.  Like  Berlioz,  Strauss  secures  dramatic  effects  by  means 
of  vivid  orchestration.  The  themes  are  arrayed  in  a  kaleidoscopic  sequence  of 
instrumental  color  rather  than  being  subjected  to  elaborate  thematic  treatment, 
and  climaxes  are  reached  by  means  of  djmamic  effects  instead  of  by  melodic  evo- 
lution.    An  elaborately  conceived  program  justifies  the  requisition  for  vast  orches- 


no 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


tral  resources.  There  is  further  evidence  of  genuine  inspiration,  of  a  true  gift  for 
thematic  development  forming  a  marvellous  filigree  of  contrapuntally  interwoven 
leading  motives,  of  intellectual  power,  philosophical  reflection,  poetic  revery,  and 
naive  humor.  The  following  themes  from  "Macbeth"  demonstrate  the  wide 
range  of  thematic  conception  Strauss  possesses: 

(♦) 
No.  I.  {^'-  J.    |j^ 


No.  a.  ^ 


±mz 


t=^ 


T'r^C!'  ir'r^ 


Tf^tt*    !* 


^ 


No.  3. 


(*)  Most  of  these 
examples  have  been 
selected  from  the  tran- 
scriptions in  skeleton 
form  of  Friedrich  Rosch. 
Nos.  16  and  19  were 
suggested  by  Richard 
Aldrich.  Nos.  34,  35, 
36,  37  were  prepared  by 
Strauss  himself. 


The  first  consists  of  a  flowing  cantilena  evolved  on  broad  and  dignified  lines.  The 
second  is  a  striking  example  of  freely  used  chromatic  intervals.  The  third  follows 
Wagner's  precedent  in  deploying  instruments  of  brass  in  forceful  and  incisive 
utterance. 

"Don  Juan"  —  Tondichtung  nach  Lenau  (op.  20,  1888),  belongs  to  the  same 
creative  period  as  "Macbeth"  and  follows  the  same  general  outlines  of  philoso- 
phical, structural,  and  orchestral  procedure.  The  following  four  representative 
themes  are  suggestive  not  only  of  "local"  coloring  but  reveal  the  highest  attribute 
of  a  genuine  composer  in  that  their  very  nature  suggests  the  general  type  of  instru- 
ment to  be  employed.  Proof  is  thus  to  be  had  that  Strauss  simultaneously  con- 
ceives his  subject-matter  and  the  orchestral  garment  in  which  it  is  to  be  attired. 


No.  4. 


No.  5. 


No.  6. 


No.  7. 


{4th  Period.)  "Tod  und  Verklarung"  —  Tondichtung  (op.  24,  1889),  is 
classified  with  the  opera  "Guntram"  for  embodying  a  certain  reactionary  trend 
on  the  part  of  the  author.    There  is  no  lack  of  intricate  polyphony,  daring  harmonic 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


III 


combinations,  complex  rhythm,  startling  contrasts,  monumental  climaxes,  and 
clever  orchestral  devices;  but  in  these  works  Strauss  has  exercised  more  restraint 
than  in  the  preceding  "Macbeth"  and  "Don  Juan,"  whereas  the  acme  of  his 
extreme  realism  was  not  reached  until  after  he  began  his  following  and  mightiest 
series  of  symphonic  poems  beginning  with  "Till  Eulenspiegel. "  To  quote  the 
refined  language  of  Herman  Klein:  "In  *Tod  und  Verklarung'  is  depicted  the  death 
struggle  of  a  man  before  whose  mental  vision  there  passes  the  panorama  of  a  wasted 
hfe  followed  by  the  man's  transfiguration,  as  his  redeemed  soul  passes  out  of  earthly 
existence  into  a  higher  state."  Of  the  three  themes  from  "Tod  imd  Verklarung" 
appended  below,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  first  of  these  (No.  8)  was  subse- 
quently interv\^oven  into  the  introductory  theme  of  "Ein  Heldenleben, "  and  appears 
as  the  third  phrase  of  the  Motiv  representing  "  Der  Held. "  (See  page  113,  example 
22,  bars  6  and  7.) 


No.  8. 


$=^^J-U^ 


No.  9. 


No.  10. 


^ 


-0  •- 


Strauss  has  not  been  so  conspicuously  successful  with  his  operas  as  with  his 
orchestral  works,  ^^^  but  the  following  themes  from  "Guntram"  disclose  the 
general  nature  of  his  operatic  conceptions. 


No.  II. 


No.  12. 


No.  13. 


No.  14. 


f 


^^ 


:*: 


1* 


%^^^y..    ,^^^,^,, 


{5th  Period.)  The  most  radical  exposition  of  modem  orchestration  is  dis- 
covered in  the  fifth  period  of  symphonic  creations  beginning  with  "Till  Eulen- 
spiegel's  lustige  Streiche"  —  nach  alter  Schelmenweise  in  Rondo-Form  (op.  28, 

(*)  See  footnote  on  p^e  118  in  reference  to  Strauss'  latest  dramatic  production. 


112 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


1895)  ^^  and  culminating  thus  far  in  "Ein  Heldenleben. "  Of  the  follo^'ing  two 
themes  from  "Till  Eulenspiegel, "  No.  16,  representing  the  titular  character,  is  a 
brilliant  specimen  of  hom-writing,  as  embodied  in  the  Rondo. 


"••  '5. rf)  •■  T fej^Tr y  '  *^  ii 


Horn: 


Ho.  x6. 


Flowing  cantilena,  perverted  rhythmic  effects  and  still  another  illustration  of 
virile  hom-writing  are  presented  in  the  following  examples  from  the  musical  ex- 
position of  Zarathustra's  philosophy  under  the  title  of  "Also  sprach  Zarathustra" 
—  Tondichtung  frei  nach  Nietzsche  (op.  30,  1896).^^^ 


Ho.  17. 


No.  18. 


%  1   '.    ' 


J 3 


a 


I    I 


Ho.  19.  I  9'LH(r 


Cre  -     do  in  u-num    De     •      nm 


T  f  r 


m/ 


Among  the  most  characteristic  of  Richard  Strauss'  pictorial  themes  are  the 
following  two  from  his  portrayal  of  Cervantes'  rueful  hero:  "Don  Quixote"  — 
phantastische  Variationen  uber  ein  Thema  ritterlichen  Characters  (op.  35,  1897): 


Ho.  20. 


Ho.  ax. 


(a)  Appendix,  Ex.  102,  103. 

(b)  Appendix,  Ex.  97  to  loi. 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


"3 


XI. 


(Esthetics.)  Similar  to  the  orchestral  works  of  Wagner,  those  of  Strauss 
are  worthy  of  exhaustive  critical  analysis.  To  carefully  examine  them  all,  how- 
ever, would  require  an  entire  volume  by  itself.  It  is  therefore  proposed  to  select 
as  typical  only  a  few  of  the  most  characteristic  points  from  one  of  the  most  charac- 
teristic of  Strauss'  orchestral  works:  "Ein  Heldenleben"  —  Tondichtimg  (op. 
40,  1898). 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  magnitude  of  his  undertakings,  let  us  first  see  how 
he  maps  out  and  elaborates  upon  the  programmatic  theme  chosen  for  musical 
setting.  The  nuclear  thought  of  "Ein  Heldenleben"  is  the  simultaneous  portrayal 
of  a  combined  mortal  and  mental  hero  belonging  to  both  a  worldly  and  a  spiritual 
realm,  or  as  Friedrich  Rosch  expresses  it:  "  Eine  harmonisch  gesteigerte  Zusammen- 
fassrmg  eines  Volks-und  Kriegshelden  und  eines  von  kiinstlerischer  Schaffens- 
freude  beseelten  Ubermenschen  aus  dem  Reiche  der  Phantasie." 

The  "program"  of  "Ein  Heldenleben"  contains  six  general  divisions: 

I.   DER  HELD. 

n.    DES  HELDEN  WIDERSACHER. 
m.   DES   HELDEN  GEFAHRTIN. 
IV.   DES   HELDEN   WALSTATT. 

V.   DES  HELDEN   FRLEDENSWERKE. 
VI.   DES  HELDEN  WELTFLUCHT  UND  VOLLENDUNG. 


No.  I  is  comprised  of  two  general  groups  of  thematic  material.  The  first 
group  is  in  reality  one  single  and  broadly  constructed  main  theme,  —  the  S)Tithesis 
of  five  distinctive  motives.  The  second  group  is  made  up  of  four  contrapimtally 
interwoven  and  super-imposed  secondary  themes.  After  these  nine  themes  have 
been  duly  presented,  they  are  subjected  to  recapitulation  and  development.  A 
tenth  figure,  based  upon  previous  material,  is  also  introduced. 

The  first  group  of  themes,  given  out  by  low  stringed-instruments,  horns,  etc., 
begins  as  follows: 


(*)    See  Ex.8. 


W0.22.  ^g 


^or 


114 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


The  first  theme  of  the  second  group  is  assigned  to  divided  first  vioUns,  beneath 
which  wind-instruments  intone  the  second  theme. 


Ifo.  23. 


No.  II  contains  five  sharply  contrasted  and  interwoven  themes.  (No.  24.) 
The  piercing  accents  of  the  wood-wind  in  their  shrillest  and  most  blatant  range 
are  here  drawn  into  requisition,  and  are  legitimately  suggestive  of  Wagner's  "  Beck- 
messer"  orchestration.  The  section  subsequently  embodies  five  modified  exposi- 
tions from  the  first  leading  theme  of  No.  I. 


No.  24. 


No.  m  is  ushered  in  by  a  tender  theme  for  solo  violin: 


No.  35. 


This  is  followed  by  an  exposition  of  five  themes  of  intentional  similarity,  which 
depict  the  varying  moods  of  the  hero's  courtship.  These  themes  are  further 
enhanced  by  characteristic  and  contrasted  orchestral  tone-color. 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


115 


No.  36. 


^gg=F=fg 


a 


^ 


;«*= 


The  section  further  embodies  some  six  motives  that  are  either  reminiscences  from 
former  or  anticipations  of  subsequent  thematic  material.  Rosch  calls  attention 
to  an  interesting  passage  at  the  close  of  this  section,  a  passage  that  cannot  be 
justified  by  any  rules  of  harmony.  He  suggests  that  in  modem  orchestration 
many  seemingly  irreconcilable  harmonic  combinations  become  perfectly  logical 
if  the  auditor  train  himself  to  follow  the  harmonic  corollary  of  complex  coimter- 
point  "horizontally"  instead  of  "vertically."  The  passage  in  question  consists 
of  a  protracted  chord,  G  flat  major,  sustained  by  muted  strings,  while  various 
instruments  of  wood  super-impose  a  number  of  independent  themes  whose  con- 
centrated effect  forms  chords  entirely  foreign  to  the  underlying  key  of  G  major. 
The  present  writer,  however,  is  inclined  to  regard  this  hazy  film  of  string-tone  as 
nothing  more  than  a  tonic  and  dominant  organ-point  with  the  third  of  the  triad 
unobtrusively  added. 

The  "program"  of  No.  IV  is  symbolic  of  martial  strife,  the  depictment  of 
which,  sub-divided  into  three  parts  together  v/ith  an  introduction,  extends  almost 
to  the  end  of  the  movement,  when  a  coda  in  two  short  divisions  portrays  victory 
and  embodies  a  hymn  of  praise.  From  a  musical  standpoint,  No.  IV  may  be 
looked  upon  as  that  section  of  the  entire  symphonic  poem  in  which  the  leading 
themes  are  subjected  to  systematic  and  elaborate  musical  development.  In 
addition,  one  finds  some  ten  new  themes,  such  as  a  striking  fanfare  for  trumpets 
behind  the  scenes  (No.  27)  and  other  warlike  strains,  of  which  Nos.  28  and  29 
represent  the  missiles  of  the  enemy. 

This  fanfare  (No.  27)  exhibits  one  of  the  most  remarkable  mixtures  of  three 
simultaneously  combined  keys  that  has  ever  emanated  from  the  mind  of  man : 


Wo.  27.  lyi  ^"^^ 


Ii6  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

By  examining  the  first  trumpet  part  by  itself: 


one  discovers  a  perfectly  harmless  figure  in  the  key  of  B  flat  major.     The  second 
trumpet,  however,  holds  tenaciously  to  the  key  of  G  flat  major: 


The  third  trumpet  is  unquestionably  in  the  key  of  B  flat  minor,  or,  at  a  pinch,  in 
its  relative  major  —  D  flat: 


The  resultant  cross-relation  caused  by  such  an  amalgamation  of  otherwise  imorig- 
inal  figures  excites  a  most  remarkable  impression. 

The   next   two   examples   embody   characteristic  employment  of   wood-wind 
instruments: 


No.  28. 


No.  29. 


No.  V  is  primarily  noteworthy  for  the  poetic  fancy  that  impelled  Strauss  to 
embody  no  less  than  twenty-four  motives  from  his  preceding  symphonic  poems, 
as  well  as  from  "Guntram"  and  from  "Traum  durch  die  Dammerung."  These 
themes  are,  of  course,  not  presented  in  a  row,  but  are  joined  together  or  subtly 
interwoven  or  contrapuntally  super-imposed  one  over  the  other,  and  one  might 
again  suggest  that  they  must  be  listened  to  horizontally  and  not  vertically.  Inci- 
dentally it  might  be  added  that  this  Division  V  of  "  Ein  Heldenleben  "  draws  into 
requisition  every  single  example  given  above  from  No.  i  to  No.  21  inclusive,  with 
the  exception  Nos.  16  and  19.  Wagner  pointed  the  way  for  such  a  procedure  by 
introducing  the  opening  bars  from  "Tristan  und  Isolde"  into  the  "Meistersinger." 
Strauss,  however,  vrent  much  further,  and  in  the  course  of  Des  Helden  Friedens- 
werke  he   has   drawn   freely  upon  "Macbeth,"  "Don   Juan,"  "Tod  und  Ver- 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


117 


klanmg,"  "Till  Eulenspiegel,"  " Zarathustra,"  and  "Don  Quixote."  He  further 
elaborates  upon  two  practically  new  themes  (Nos.  30  and  31),  although  an  antici- 
pation of  the  second  of  these  themes  is  already  to  be  found  in  Division  III. 


-»■  3°-  [;^in7f^j^^^-:n^^st:I^xj^ 


tr 


No.  31. 


No.  VI  brings  this  noble  creation  to  a  fitting  end.  With  the  exception  of  an 
episodic  anti-climax,  the  movement  is  dominated  by  calm  and  majestic  peace,  as 
exemplified  by  themes  No.  32  (evolved  from  No.  31)  and  No.  33. 


ff\  {ju.  mr^^^^^^ 


No.  32. 


No.  33. 


Such  are  the  vast  dimensions  of  Richard  Strauss'  orchestral  tableaux!  His 
other  works  are  evolved  on  similarly  broad  lines.  "Ein  Heldenleben,"  with  its 
six  well-defined  divisions,  includes  no  less  than  seventy  themes.  The  score  makes 
demand  for  one  hundred  and  five  instrumentalists:  — 

16  first  violins;  16  seconds;  12  violas;  12  violoncellos;  8  double-basses. 

2  harps. 

I  piccolo  flute;  3  flutes;  3  oboes;  i  English  horn  (also  as  4th  oboe);  i  E 
flat  clarinet;  2  B  flat  clarinets;  i  bass-clarinet;  3  bassoons;  i  contra-bassoon. 

8  horns;  5  trumpets;  3  trombones;  i  tenor-tuba;  i  bass-tuba. 

Kettle-drums;  bass-drum;  side-drum;  military  drum;  cymbals. 


XII. 


Since  composing  what  might  be  called  the  Tetralogy  of  mighty  productions 
that  have  been  classified  together  as  belonging  to  the  5th  Period,  Strauss  has 
written  two  further  important  works:  the  opera  "Feuersnoth"  and  the  "Sym- 
phonia  Domestica."  The  latter  is  still  in  manuscript,  '-^^  and  but  recently  had  a 
hearing  in  this  country  under  the  composer's  personal  direction.    It  is  as  yet  too 

C)  Since  published. 


Il8  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

early  to  suggest  a  sixth  period  in  Strauss'  style  of  writing. ^"^  What  is  more,  the 
two  recent  offerings  have  too  little  in  common  to  justify  classifying  them  together. 
"Feuersnoth"  has  shared  the  fate  of  its  predecessor,  "Guntram,"  in  that  it  has 
been  granted  no  more  than  a  respectful  hearing,  and  is  not  to  be  compared  as  a 
work  of  art  with  Strauss'  symphonic  undertakings.  As  to  the  "  Symphonia  Domes- 
tica,"  the  very  topic  chosen  for  exposition  gives  rise  to  some  misgivings  as  to 
whether  it  justifies  the  expenditure  of  so  much  vital  creative  energy.  The  subject 
and  the  elaborate  means  employed  to  depict  it  would  appear  somewhat  incon- 
gruous. The  sub-title  of  this  paradoxical  essay  reads:  "Ein  Tag  aus  meinem 
Familienleben,"  and  the  orchestra  is  required  to  expound  upon  the  charmingly 
naiVe  topics  of  Papa,  Mama,  and  Beb^.  Incidentally,  one  passage  introduces  the 
worthy  aunts  as  exclaiming  in  chorus,  "  Just  hke  his  father  ";  the  uncles,  "  Just 
like  his  mother."  The  "  Symphonia  Domestica  "  is  further  paradoxical  in  that 
the  score  includes  no  definite  programmatic  commentary,  and  Strauss  himself  has 
been  quoted  as  saying  emphatically,  "  This  time  I  wish  my  music  to  be  listened  to 
purely  as  music."  The  work  is  therefore  intended  to  be  accepted  not  as  a  sym- 
phonic poem  but  as  a  symphony  "  In  einem  Satz  "  like  Mendelssohn's  "  Scotch  "  or 
Schumann's  D  minor  symphony.  In  the  face  of  all  this  we  find  a  program,  and 
a  positive  one  at  that,  at  the  root  of  the  matter!  In  reality,  its  only  claim  to  the 
title  of  "symphony"  rests  upon  the  general  outlines  of  its  formal  structure,  which 
is  comprised  of  three  main  divisions  preceded  by  an  elaborate  introduction.  But 
it  is  assuredly  not  "absolute"  music.  On  the  other  hand,  its  thematic  continuity 
is  far  more  closely  knit  together  than  that  of  the  above-mentioned  symphonies  of 
Mendelssohn  and  Schumann. 

In  the  "Symphonia  Domestica"  we  recognize  the  personal  element  that  asserted 
itself,  though  in  an  unobtrusive  manner,  in  "Ein  Heldenleben. "  Humorous 
inclinations,  characteristic  of  "Don  Quixote,"  are  also  in  evidence. 

The  Introduction  is  an  exposition  of  the  three  principal  themes.  The  theme 
for  the  father  is  comprised  of  three  contrasted  sections  (No.  34,  a,  b,  c).  The 
mother  is  characterized  by  a  lively  and  perhaps  slightly  undignified  theme  (No. 
35).  For  the  child's  theme  (No.  36)  Strauss  makes  use  of  an  oboe  d'amore.  The 
tone  of  this  practically  obsolete  member  of  the  wood-wind  is  veiled  and  tender, 
and  the  instrument  found  favor  with  Bach  who  assigned  to  it  an  important  r61e 

(*")  Since  the  above  lines  were  written,  a  sixth  period  was  assuredly  entered  upon  with  the  opera 
Salome,"  first  performed  at  Dresden  in  the  fall  of  1905  under  the  magnetic  baton  of  Schuch,  director 
of  the  Royal  Opera.  The  work,  which  has  since  been  given  throughout  Europe  and  in  New  York, 
has  universally  created  a  sensation  to  which  nothing  in  the  annals  of  the  musical  stage  furnishes  a  psirallel 
unless  it  be  the  initial  performances  of  "Tristan  und  Isolde"  in  Munich  in  1865.  "Salome,"  by  reason 
of  its  overwhelming  dramatic  force,  the  sureness  of  Strauss'  marvellous  use  of  representative  themes,  ' 
together  with  an  orchestral  color-scheme  beyond  anything  he  has  used  before,  not  only  marks  an  epoch 
in  the  career  of  this  still  young  composer  and  an  epoch  also  in  his  orchestration,  but  becomes  a  land- 
mark in  the  form  of  opera  as  evolved  from  and  built  upon  the  Tetralogy  of  Wagner. 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


119 


in  his  mass  in  B  minor,  —  in  fact  two  oboi  d'amore  are  employed  for  accompanying 
the  bass  solo  "Et  in  Spiritum  Sanctum." 


gemdchlich 


No.  34,  a.  ^g: 


fet 


tiniiend 


S= 


b. 


^^ 


I  iL 


^ 


^ 


/eurig 


No.  35. 


No.  36. 


The  following  sportive  Scherzo  or  first  main  division  proper  presents  a  sprightly 
development  of  the  three  primary  themes  and  especially  of  the  child's  theme. 
The  movement  is  finally  brought  to  a  restful  ending. 

The  succeeding  Adagio  enlarges  upon  the  father's  theme  and  pictures  him 
alone  as  if  in  a  revery.  The  music  is  reflective  and  dreamy,  at  times  restless  and 
impassioned  as  well. 

The  Finale  embodies  a  lively  double-fugue  (No.  37,  a  and  b),  of  which  the 
principal  theme  consists  of  a  diminution  of  the  child's  theme  (No.  36).  The 
close  of  the  work  is  calm  and  peaceful. 


No.  37,  a- 


/:;;: 


^  *  _^- 


^ 


^ 


^ 


3 


1 


By  thus  analyzing  the  programmatic  foundation  of  two  of  Strauss'  latest  orches- 
tral conceptions  one  can  obtain  at  least  a  superficial  idea  of  the  somewhat  eccentric 
though  intensely  original  range  of  his  imagination.  The  philosophical  aspect  of 
the  "Symphonia  Domestica"  is,  of  course,  far  simpler  than  that  of  "Ein  Helden- 


I20  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

leben"  and  its  companions,  nor  would  it  seem  to  possess  the  same  scope  or  exert 
the  same  fascination  that  his  nobler  and  more  serious  works  do.  The  orchestration, 
however,  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  There  is  no  retrogression  in  the  deploy- 
ment of  the  instruments  whether  as  solo  or  in  combination.  Strauss  is  in  command 
of  an  orchestral  technique  so  deep-rooted  that  it  can  never  fail  him.  One  would 
have  supposed  that  his  works  prior  to  the  "Symphonia  Domestica"  had  made 
requisition  for  practically  every  legitimately  available  instrument  in  existence, 
but  the  addition  of  an  oboe  d'amore  together  with  four  saxophones  proves  that 
Strauss  has  an  insatiable  craving  for  ever  novel  tonal  tints,  and  whereas  "  Ein 
Heldenleben"  requires  105  instrumentahsts,  the  symphony  demands  108. 

Before  proceeding  to  sum  up  the  cardmal  features  of  Strauss'  orchestration, 
it  is  desired  to  call  attention  to  his  highly  commendable  foresight  in  evolving 
his  songs  with  pianoforte  accompaniment  on  comparatively  simple  lines,  thereby 
greatly  enhancing  their  effectiveness  for  vocal  utterance  as  well  as  their  adaptability 
for  extensive  rendition.  It  is  a  rare  attribute  of  genius  to  possess  the  faculty  of 
colossal  orchestral  language  and  at  the  same  time  of  simple  and  pathetic  song- 
speech. 

XIII. 

(Instrumentation.)  The  marvellous  subtleties  of  Strauss'  instrumenta- 
tion and  the  irresistible  sweep  and  large  contour  of  his  orchestration  have 
already  been  so  thoroughly  aired  by  prominent  critics  the  world  over,  that  there 
is  httle  further  to  say  beyond  epitomizing  in  a  few  brief  sentences  the  general 
concensus  of  opinion.  Founding  his  art  of  scoring  upon  that  of  Berlioz  and  Wagner, 
Strauss  evidently  has  also  made  a  careful  study  of  the  means  and  methods  of  his 
eminent  contemporary,  Saint-Saens,  for  the  performances  of  "Samson  et  Dalila" 
at  the  Berlin  Royal  Opera,  when  controlled  by  Strauss'  magnetic  force,  are  a  source 
of  artistic  delectation.  The  fundamental  reason  that  makes  his  scoring  so  effective 
is  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  characteristics  of  each  individual  instrument 
even  to  the  minutest  detail  of  mechanical  limitation  or  latent  potentiality.  There- 
fore his  instrumentation  pure  and  simple  as  distinct  from  orchestration  en  masse 
is  unhesitating  and  authoritative.  In  thus  appreciating  the  imperative  necessity 
for  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  instruments  themselves,  Strauss  has  done  no  more 
than  to  follow  the  precepts  of  his  illustrious  model,  Wagner.  Strauss  would  be 
entitled  to  but  little  credit  had  he  not  advanced  beyond  his  master,  for  proportion- 
ately, Wagner  established  a  far  greater  number  of  unalterable  precedents  than 
Strauss  has  since  been  able  to  add  to.  The  criticism  has  been  advanced  that 
Strauss'  demands  upon  the  technique  of  the  performers  are  excessive,  and  that  he 
is  given  to  force  the  instruments,  and  especially  those  of  brass,  into  unnatural 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT  I2i 

registers.  Such  points,  however,  would  appear  to  be  for  the  gentlemen  of  the 
orchestra  to  decide,  and  the  enthusiasm  and  grim  determination  with  which  they 
overcome  seemingly  insurmountable  difficulties  at  rehearsal,  and  the  suavity  and 
verve  with  which  the  performances  of  his  works  by  first-class  orchestras  are  carried 
through,  may  be  looked  upon  as  tangible  proof  that  Strauss  knows  what  he  is  about. 
The  performers  may  complain  of  the  demands  made  upon  them,  but  they  realize 
that  the  page  before  them  bears  the  impress  of  a  master  of  instrumentation  whose 
music  is  written  with  special  regard  for  the  very  instrument  they  are  playing,  — 
can  and  must  therefore  be  played.  And  they  accordingly  respect  the  author  of 
their  arduous  though  fascinating  task.  Finally,  if  the  now  childlike  simplicity  of 
Schubert's  orchestration  proved  a  stumbling  block  to  the  Viennese  orchestra  only 
fifty  odd  years  ago  (as  stated  on  page  75),  and  furthermore  Wagner's  "Tristan 
und  Isolde"  shared  the  same  fate  at  a  still  more  recent  date,  it  will  not  be  difficult 
to  realize  that  Strauss  fifteen  years  ago  taxed  the  virtuosity  of  the  performers  with 
passages  that  are  already  no  longer  dreaded.  As  to  the  details  of  instrumentation, 
he  has  strengthened  and  elaborated  upon  the  methods  of  his  predecessors,  assim- 
ilated the  procedures  of  his  contemporaries,  besides  resuscitating  various  obsolete 
instruments  and  initiating  numerous  novelties  of  his  own. 

The  flexibility  of  execution  that  formerly  was  expected  only  of  a  first  violinist 
is  now  imposed  upon  all  five  sections  of  the  string  band,  and  each  member  finds 
before  him  the  pages  of  what  looks  like  a  concerto. ^''^  To  the  wood-wind  are 
assigned  passages  that  Wagner  would  have  hesitated  to  write. ^'^^  What  Strauss 
demands  from  them,  Beethoven  might  have  demanded  from  the  strings.  Most 
prominent  of  all  is  the  attention  bestowed  upon  the  deployment  of  the  brass  as 
initiated  by  Wagner. ^®^  The  trumpets  are  treated  with  unprecedented  freedom, 
and  are  expected  to  perform  passages  either  of  flowing  melody  or  of  rhythmic 
intricacy  in  the  fastest  of  tempos.  The  horns  are  taught  to  display  the  agility  of 
violoncellos.  In  four-part  writing,  the  fourth  horn  is  much  used  as  a  deep  bass- 
instrument  absolutely  apart  from  the  three  upper  horns.  The  trombones  are 
employed  as  much  for  unallied  melodic  utterance  as  for  combined  harmonic 
effects,  and  the  intricacy  of  their  parts  constantly  necessitates  the  use  of  three 
staves  in  the  partitur.  Incidental  mention  might  also  be  made  of  such  devices 
for  acquiring  weird  tonal  tints  as  obtained  from  muted  trombones.  Similar  to 
Wagner's  procedure  in  the  "Meistersinger"  Vorspiel,  the  tubas  —  and  particu- 
larly the  tenor  tuba  —  are  constantly  detached  from  their  conventional  association 
with  the  trombones,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  expression  to  flowing  cantilena. 
Novelty  in  the  use  of  instruments  of  percussion  is  restricted  to  rhythmic  peculiari- 
ties and  original  combinations  with  other  instruments  of  more  variable  pitch;  for 
Wagner's  general  methods  of  handling  the  battery  cannot  be  improved  upon. 

Cc)  Appendix,  Ex.  100.  (d)  Ap.  Ex.  102.  («)  Ap.  Ex.  103. 


122  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

In  a  word,  the  three  choirs  of  the  orchestra  have  respectively  advanced  one 
step  higher.  The  string  band  are  graduated  to  the  plane  of  so  many  virtuoso 
soloists.  The  wood-wind  replace  the  strings  and  are  themselves  replaced  by  the 
brass.  The  battery  acquire  prominence  such  as  the  classicists  formerly  allowed 
to  the  trumpets  and  trombones. 

(Orchestration.)  The  numerical  distribution  of  Strauss'  orchestra  is, 
of  course,  consistent  with  the  modem  custom  of  employing  quartets  of  uniform 
tone-color.  But  he  advances  yet  further  by  making  permanent  Wagner's  occa- 
sional incorporation  into  the  orchestra  of  a  second  harp,  an  E  flat  clarinet,  a  double 
quartet  of  horns,  five  instead  of  four  trumpets,  and  a  tenor-tuba  in  addition  to  the 
bass-tuba.  The  occasional  addition  of  unusual  instruments  such  as  an  oboe 
d'amore  and  saxophones  has  already  been  referred  to. 

The  sum  total  of  Strauss'  orchestration  as  a  whole  consists  of  what  has  been 
termed  its  "exposed"  quality,  resulting  in  a  "vast  piece  of  chamber  music." ^^^ 
The  extensive  range  of  his  imagination  reveals  itself  in  constantly  novel  combina- 
tions and  kaleidoscopic  variety  of  effects  that  are  unprecedented.  His  command 
of  d)Tiamics  is  superb.  His  synthesis  of  thematic  counterpoint  in  all  the  voices 
of  the  different  choirs  is  at  times  so  reckless  that  the  euphony  of  its  harmonic 
corollary  is  endangered  and  the  resultant  effect  presents  a  chaos  of  cacophony 
unless  the  auditor  accustom  himself  to  follow  the  Melos  not  vertically  but  hori- 
zontally. The  orchestration  is  the  most  vivid  in  existence.  Realism  is  accent- 
uated. The  tonal  tints  are  scintillating  and  glowing.  Every  single  instrument 
in  the  orchestra  has  an  indispensable  r61e  assigned  to  it.  The  scores  abound  in 
clever  orchestral  devices,  in  startling  contrasts,  powerful  crescendos  and  exciting 
climaxes,  and  disclose  the  mind  of  a  master  possessed  of  poetic  fancy,  natural 
humor,  artistic  culture,  strong  individuality,  philosophical  insight  and  intellectual 
power. 

The  titanic  achievements  of  Richard  Strauss  have  caused  him  to  appear  as  the 
most  conspicuous  living  musician,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  a  modem  program, 
his  works  are  at  present  the  accepted  companions  to  those  of  his  models  in  rich 
and  massive  orchestration,  Wagner  and  Liszt;  to  those  of  Brahms,  conservator  of 
classic  models  and  loftiest  ideals;  to  Saint-Saens'  scintillating  and  unrivalled 
tableaux;  to  Tschaikowsky's  sombre  tone-pictures,  to  Dvorak's  brilliant  and 
vivacious  portrayals,  to  Grieg's  poetic  and  popular  conceptions. 

(0  Appendix,  Ex.  97. 


THE    NEW    MOVEMENT 


123 


XIV. 

It  is  high  time  to  bring  this  fascinating  subject  of  modem  German  progres- 
siveness  to  a  close;  otherwise  there  is  no  knowing  whither  this  history  might  lead 
us.  In  these  days  even  a  secondary  composer  is  supposed  to  be  thoroughly  con- 
versant with  every  subtlety  in  the  art  of  orchestration.  Germany  still  leads  the 
van;  the  number  of  her  eminent  masters  of  modern  instrumentation  is  legion. 
The  ambition  of  the  ultra-modem  school  is  to  out-Wagner  Wagner.  It  will 
suffice  to  make  mention  of  Max  Schillings'  "Ingwelde"  or  of  Cyrill  Kistler's 
"Kunihild  und  der  Brautritt  auf  Kynast"  with  its  poem  in  alliterative  verse  in 
strictly  Wagnerian  lines  by  Graf  Sporck.  The  same  exaggerated  sense  of  mor- 
bidness and  pessimism  has  found  its  way  as  well  into  other  fields  of  German  com- 
position as  discovered  in  certain  ones  of  Hugo  Wolf's  intensely  modem  and  mag- 
nificent songs,  or  in  Max  Reger's  organ  works  of  questionable  worth  with  their 
atrocious  harmonic  mixture,  their  intricacy  of  contrapuntal  treatment,  and  their 
extreme  difficulty  of  execution.^"^  These  restless  signs  of  evolution  are  per- 
fectly logical  and  eminently  proper.  In  many  instances  the  results  have  been 
highly  successful,  but  again  they  have  not.  On  the  other  hand,  a  number  of 
living  German  composers  could  still  be  cited  who  are  possessed  of  sufficient  poise 
to  accept  the  spirit  of  modem  progression  without  allowing  their  convictions  to 
carry  them  to  extremes.  One  of  the  most  successful  of  these  is  Humperdinck, 
whose  "Hansel  und  Gretel"  acquires  its  effectiveness  primarily  by  means  of  the 
orchestra.  The  exceedingly  simple  vocal  parts  are  founded  entirely  on  Volks- 
melodien;  Leit-motiven  add  coherence  to  the  opera  as  a  whole,  whereas  the  scoring 
is  amazingly  complicated  and  elaborate  though  ever  lucid  and  euphonious. ^"^ 
Ludwig  Thuille  ^"^  has  earned  desen^ed  success  with  his  charming  "Lobetanz," 
and  Kienzl  has  captivated  the  masses  with  "Der  Evangelimann,"  a  work  that  is 
both  dignified  and  uplifting  in  spite  of  its  eclectic  appropriations  from  Meyerbeer, 
Wagner,  Gounod,  and  even  Mascagni.  Georg  Schumann,  also,  is  to  be  com- 
mended for  the  "healthy"  tendencies  of  his  orchestral  works,  of  which  both  the 
symphonic  chorale  variations  and  the  "  Liebesfruhling "  overture  have  been  heard 
in  America.  ^"^ 

(")  At  the  present  moment  !Max  Reger  is  exciting  increased  comment  by  reason  of  his  continued 
revolutionar>'  ideas  expressed  through  the  medium  of  the  orchestra. 

(")  Engelbert  Humperdinck  directed  by  inNatation  his  ojsera  "  Hansel  und  Gretel "  at  the  Metropol- 
itan Opera  House,  New  York,  during  the  season  1905-1906. 

0')  Ludwig  Thuille  died  since  the  above  lines  were  written. 

(")  Gustav  Mahler,  from  1897  to  1907  director  of  the  Opera  at  Vienna,  has  of  late  invited  comment 
throughout  the  musical  world  because  of  the  colossal  form  and  daring  orchestration  of  his  symphonies. 
His  present  activity  in  New  York  should  give  American  critics  an  excellent  opportunity  to  estimate  the 
importance  of  his  contributions  to  musical  art.     Leo  Blech  is  commanding  favorable  criticism  particu- 


124 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


XV. 

The  reader  will  pardon  the  appendage  of  a  few  final  remarks  relating  to  the 
progress  of  lighter  German  music  during  the  nineteenth  century,  for  otherwise 
these  records  would  not  be  complete.  By  retracing  a  few  of  our  steps  we  find 
that  the  more  important  successors  of  Kreutzer  (who  was  mentioned  on  page  73 
of  Chapter  IX,  and  lived  from  1780  imtil  1849)  were  Lortzing,  Nicolai,  Flotow, 
Supp^,  and  Johann  Strauss  junior.  For  charming  originality  and  for  naturalness 
of  expression  Lortzing  (1801)  stands  head  and  shoulders  above  the  remaining 
composers  of  this  list.  His  works  show  the  immistakable  influence  of  Weber, 
and  just  this  romantic  tendency  accounts  for  the  universal  popularity  of  his  "  Czar 
und  Zimmermann,"  this  tendency  being,  moreover,  still  more  marked  in  his  best 
work:  "Diebeiden  Schutzen."  Nicolai  (1810)  wrote  in  the  conventional  Italian 
style.  "The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor"  is  still  one  of  the  popular  comic  operas 
of  the  day.  Flotow  (181 2)  earned  notoriety  through  "Stradella"  and  "Martha." 
His  aims  are  not  high,  neither  is  his  music  on  a  par  with  that  of  Lortzing;  he 
displays,  none  the  less,  a  happy  faculty  for  instilling  warmth  of  sentiment  into 
his  works.  Suppe  (1820)  has  acquired  the  nomenclature  of  "The  German 
Offenbach"  by  reason  of  his  pleasing  operettas  and  vaudeville.  Johann  Strauss 
junior  (1825)  owes  a  world  reputation  to  his  sprightly  "Fledermaus."  These 
are  the  men  who  have  been  instrumental  in  transplanting  the  daintiness  and  refine- 
ment of  modem  light  French  opera  into  indigenous  German  productions.  The 
results  have  been  directly  beneficial.  Not  only  has  this  transplantation  of  exotic 
principles  tempered  the  general  taste  of  the  German  public  for  an  all  too  heavy 
and  sedate  form  of  melodic  and  structural  treatment,  but  quite  especially  has 
German  orchestration  reacquired  thereby  much  of  that  lightness  of  touch  it 
apparently  had  lost  after  the  culmination  of  Mozart's  career.  French  instrumenta- 
tion, in  spite  of  certain  of  its  superficial  tendencies,  is  assuredly  a  very  important 
factor  in  the  evolution  of  orchestral  music,  and  its  continued  development  during 
the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  affords  a  fruitful  topic  for  discussion 
as  outlined  in  the  next  few  pages. 

larly  by  his  opera  "Das  war  ich,"  while  d' Albert's  highly  effective  operas  "Die  Abreise  "  and  "Flauto 
solo"  are  being  performed  on  nearly  every  operatic  stage  in  Germany.  "Flauto  solo"  is  winning 
popularity  only  secondary,  perhaps,  to  that  of  Lehar's  internationally  favored  operetta  "Die  lustige 
Witwe,"  which  is  at  present  going  the  rounds  of  the  United  States  under  its  Anglicized  title  of  "The 
Merry  Widow." 

(Summary  on  page  176.) 


CHAPTER  XII. 

FRANCE  AND  ITALY. 

I. 

France.  It  will  be  recalled  that  Chapter  VTEI  treats  of  the  flourishing 
conditions  of  musical  art  in  France  at  the  time  when  it  was  undergoing  a  series 
of  metamorphoses  that  embodied  nascent  modem  tendencies.  The  standard  of 
sacred  music  was  being  elevated  by  Cherubini;  French  opera  in  serious  vein  as 
well  as  French  instrumentation  had  acquired  distinctly  indigenous  characteristics 
through  the  efforts  of  two  native  composers,  Mehul  and  Lesueur;  the  development 
of  the  lighter  lyric  style  as  bequeathed  by  Gretry  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  French- 
men Boieldieu,  Auber,  Herold,  Halevy;  finally,  a  renewed  interest  for  grand  opera 
was  awakened  by  the  so-caUed  historic  school  of  Spontini,  which  was  followed  by 
the  enthusiastic  reception  of  Rossini's  melodious  and  emotional  productions,  and 
of  Meyerbeer's  sensational  and  spectacular  presentations.  Of  momentous  pur- 
port was  the  influence  that  these  three  foreigners,  Spontini,  Rossini,  and  Meyer- 
beer exerted  upon  French  orchestration.  ^leanwhile  an  absolutely  novel  aspect 
of  musical  activity  was  being  developed  by  Berlioz,  who,  as  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  "New  Movement,"  has  already  been  treated  in  Chapter  XI  in  connection 
with  Liszt  and  Wagner.  In  resuming  and  concluding  the  topic  now  under  dis- 
cussion, it  would  be  well  to  keep  the  above  brief  review  clearly  in  mind,  in  order 
that  the  simultaneous  evolution  of  musical  art  in  France  and  Germany  may  the 
better  be  compared. 

With  the  exception  of  BerUoz,  Felicien  David  and  Gounod,  few  French  writers 
have,  until  recently,  applied  themselves  to  independent  orchestral  music  as  one 
of  the  primary  objects  of  their  ambition.  In  France,  the  operatic  stage  ever  has 
been  and  still  is  the  centre  of  attraction.  Even  the  most  recent  of  her  composers 
can  with  difficulty  be  separated  into  distinct  groups  that  shall  represent  exclusive 
devotion  to  dramatic  writing  only  or  to  sacred  music  or  to  concert  works.  Never- 
theless, the  present  writer,  having  attempted  to  bring  order  out  of  the  rather 
heterogeneous  array  of  nineteenth  century  French  composers,  has  classified  them 
according  to  that  particular  branch  in  which  they  have  been  conspicuously 
successful. 


125 


126  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


II. 

Prominent  contributors  to  instrumental  and  orchestral  music  are  Onslow,  Reber, 
David,  Franck,  Lalo,  Reyer,  Godard,  d'Indy. 

Onslow  (1784)  enjoyed  an  honorable  reputation  during  his  lifetime  as  an 
exponent  of  classic  models.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  of  chamber  music,  but  his 
style,  though  correct,  was  cold,  and  his  three  comic  operas  are  of  small  importance. 
Reber  (1807)  may  be  regarded  as  the  successor  of  Onslow  in  that  he  also  restricted 
himseK  to  traditional  forms.  He  was  an  excellent  contrapuntist  as  well  as  one 
of  the  most  cultured  musicians  France  has  produced;  as  a  result,  his  compositions 
reflect  the  refinement  of  his  character.  Moreover,  his  conservative  and  careful 
style  was  modelled  after  that  of  the  German  classicists,  and  the  constitution  of  his 
orchestra  is  like  Mozart's.  Practically  all  modem  instruments,  all  instruments 
of  percussion  excepting  kettle-drums,  and  even  trombones  are  excluded  from 
most  of  his  orchestral  works.  He  wrote  four  symphonies,  one  overture  and  one 
suite,  besides  chamber  and  salon  music  in  various  forms. 

Although  F^Hcien  David  (1810)  is  best  known  to  the  general  public  on  account 
of  his  opera  "Lalla  Rookh,"  he  was  at  his  best  as  an  exponent  of  graceful  and 
buoyant  instrumentation.  Not  that  his  orchestration  can  be  regarded  as  epoch- 
making  when  compared  with  that  of  his  contemporary,  Berlioz,  for  of  the  two, 
David  was  the  more  faithful  to  French  traditions,  and  his  scoring  is  more  like  that 
of  Haydn  than  any  other  French  composer.  On  the  other  hand,  David,  like 
Berlioz,  introduced  certain  scenic  qualities  into  his  orchestration,  which  is  ever 
poetic,  supple,  and  varied.  Berlioz's  aim  was  to  re-echo  the  thoughts  of  the  grand 
romantic  poets,  whereas  David  was  par  excellence  a  dreamer  in  the  realm  of  pictur- 
esque imagination,  of  tender  love,  of  ardent  passion.  In  consequence  of  his  extensive 
journey  through  the  East  as  an  apostle  and  missionary  of  Saint-Simonism,  David 
acquired  an  insight  and  knowledge  of  Oriental  melodies  that  caused  him  to  be  the 
first  to  introduce  genuinely  Eastern  characteristics  into  Western  music,  as  strikingly 
displayed  in  "  Lalla  Rookh. "  The  effectiveness  of  this  opera  is  largely  due  to  its 
fine  orchestration,  for  though  the  musical  contents  are  clear  and  simple,  the  ideas 
themselves  occasionally  lack  force,  whereas  the  harmonies  are  somewhat  meagre. 
However,  David  possessed,  in  addition  to  the  characteristic  feature  of  clearness, 
a  highly  developed  talent  for  artistic  disposition  of  his  plans,  for  poetic  picture- 
painting,  and  for  rich  and  descriptive  orchestral  color.  Of  especial  significance 
is  his  aptitude  for  accompanying  a  solo  voice  with  daintily  embroidered  counter- 
point. David  contributed  substantially  to  the  development  in  France  of  indepen- 
dent orchestral  music,  and  displayed,  among  other  things,  a  commendable  appre- 
ciation for  well-marked  rhythmic  effects.    His  list  of  instrumental  works  includes 


FRANCE    AND    ITALY 


127 


a  symphony  in  F,  twenty-four  string  quintets,  and  two  nonets  for  wind  instru- 
ments. 

Cesar  Franck  (1822)  might  be  compared  in  two  respects  with  Cherubim.  Both 
of  them,  though  foreigners,  are  rated  as  French  composers,  and  the  dignity  and 
solidity  of  their  respective  styles  isolate  them  both  from  the  more  usual  methods 
of  their  respective  eras.  Franck  differs  from  his  French  contemporaries  by  reason 
of  what  might  be  termed  the  masculine  severity  of  his  inspiration,  together  with 
monumental  mastery  of  polyphonic  design  and  jxhaustless  command  of  orchestral 
resources.  These  attributes  have  earned  him  the  title  of  "The  French  Bach." 
The  opera  "Hulda"  is  a  forceful  exposition  of  the  gloomy  Viking  subject,  but 
Franck  rose  to  the  height  of  his  creative  power  in  his  chamber  music,  and  in  the 
symphonic  poem  with  chorus:  "Les  beatitudes."  That  he  was  influenced  by 
Liszt  and  Wagner  is  undeniable.  Not  only  do  his  productions  give  evidence  of 
a  reserved  use  of  guiding  themes,  but  also  his  orchestration  has  affinity  to  that  of 
"Tristan"  so  far  as  intricacy  is  concerned. 

This  mention  of  Wagnerian  influence  suggests  an  interesting  comparison 
between  the  styles  of  C^sar  Franck  and  of  Lalo  (1823).  The  latter  was  a  professed 
admirer  of  Wagner,  and  applied  such  of  his  theories  as  are  restricted  to  "Tann- 
hauser"  and  "Lohengrin."  This  is  particularly  noticeable  in  the  opera:  "Le 
Roi  d'Ys. "  Li  antithesis  to  Franck's  severe  and  somewhat  solemn  style  of  writing, 
that  of  Lalo  betrays  a  fund  of  spontaneous  invention,  curious  rhythmic  effects, 
charming  and  sprightly  instrumentation,  and  great  aptitude  for  imbuing  his  works 
with  the  necessary  local  coloring.  Both  the  violin  concerto  styled  "Symphonie 
espagnole"  and  the  "Rhapsodic  norv^gienne"  for  orchestra  are  distinctively 
characteristic.  His  chamber  music  is  likewise  written  with  sentient  regard  for 
euphonious  effects  and  artistic  requirements,  but  it  is  conspicuously  in  the  art  of 
orchestration  that  Lalo  displays  his  individuality  to  the  best  advantage. 

Reyer  (1823)  belongs  more  properly  under  the  heading  of  operatic  composers, 
since  he  devoted  himself  primarily  to  that  branch  of  musical  art.  He  is  neverthe- 
less mentioned  at  this  point  in  consequence  of  the  interest  attached  to  his  ode- 
symphony  "Le  Selam,"  which,  though  not  an  imitation  of  David's  "Le  Ddsert," 
is  intended  as  a  sequel  to  it.  He  is  ranked  as  a  conspicuous  representative  of 
the  young  French  romantic  school.  Reyer's  reputation  is  generally  confined  to 
France,  whereas  Reber's  eminent  pupil,  Godard  (1849),  has  become  widely  known 
as  a  prolific  writer  possessing  marked  individuality.  This  foreign  recognition  is 
due  to  his  works  in  smaller  form,  being  a  genre  of  composition  in  which  he  excels. 
In  France,  however,  Godard  has  occupied  a  conspicuous  position  on  the  programs 
of  orchestral  concert  music.  His  activity  in  this  direction  has  been  indeed  prodig- 
ious, and  the  results  should  command  a  more  extensive  acquaintance  by  virtue 
of  their  charming  musical  ideas  and  graceful  instrumentation.    These  orchestral 


128  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

works  bring  to  light  the  varied  range  of  his  imagination,  and  for  this  very  reason 
some  of  the  most  characteristic  titles  will  bear  citation.  In  addition  to  a  pianoforte 
concerto  and  a  "Concerto  romantique"  for  violin,  Godard  has  written  an  orchestral 
suite:  "Scenes  po€tiques,"  a  " Symphonie-ballet, "  an  "Ouverture  dramatique," 
a  "Symphonic  gothique,"  a  "Symphonic  orientale,"  a  "Symphonic  legendaire," 
the  lyric  scena:  "Diane  et  Acteon,"  and  the  dramatic  poem  for  soli,  chorus  and 
orchestra:  "LeTasse."  The  last  named  is  considered  to  be  his  best  work.  His 
chamber  music  also  merits  just  commendation.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
Godard's  already  extensive  foreign  reputation  is  overshadowed  only  by  the  broader 
recognition  awarded  him  in  France. 

An  examination  of  the  works  of  Vincent  d'Indy  (1852)  reintroduces  the  subject 
of  contemporary  musical  art  in  one  of  its  extreme  phases.  In  earnest  endeavor 
and  in  faithful  adherence  to  high  ideals  d'Indy  has  proved  himself  a  worthy  suc- 
cessor to  his  teacher,  Cesar  Franck,  whom  he  copies  in  exceedingly  complicated 
development  of  subject-matter.  Not  content  with  incorporating  in  his  works  the 
most  advanced  tenets  of  Wagner,  he  further  has  explored  the  pathway  opened  up 
by  Brahms.  Wagnerian  tendencies  have  crept  into  all  modem  French  music, 
whereas  Brahms  has  as  yet  found  few  imitators  among  the  composers  of  the  Ro- 
mance nations.  Like  each  and  every  French  writer,  d'Indy  has  tried  his  hand  in 
operatic  lines;  his  chamber  music,  too,  is  surprisingly  clever  and  effective.  Never- 
theless, he  is  essentially  a  symphonist;  "  Wallenstein "  is  evolved  on  broad  and 
dignified  lines,  and  displays  a  masterful  deployment  of  orchestral  resources.  "Le 
Chant  de  la  Cloche,"  dramatic  legend  adapted  from  Schiller,  is  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  of  d'Indy's  works;  it  shows  marked  resemblance  to  Wagner's  later 
style  by  reason  of  its  elaboration  of  detail  and  intricacy  of  orchestration. 

Before  turning  from  this  series  of  composers,  it  is  again  desired  to  emphasize 
the  peculiar  fact  that  all  French  writers  both  past  and  present  have  been  consistent 
in  first  experimenting  in  the  dramatic  field  before  settling  down  to  the  exacting 
requirements  of  equally  arduous  and  perhaps  intellectually  higher  orchestral  and 
chamber  music.  That  the  authorship  of  a  more  or  less  important  opera  has  been 
conceded  to  every  one  of  the  above-mentioned  composers  need  therefore  excite 
no  further  comment. 

m. 

A  little  coterie  of  Frenchmen  have  distinguished  themselves  by  almost  exclusive 
devotion  to  the  lightest  of  operatic  forms.  Just  as  Lortzing  and  his  contemporaries 
rendered  incalculable  service  to  German  musical  art  by  clothing  their  vivacious 
productions  in  dainty  orchestral  raiment,  so  has  France  been  the  gainer  through 
the  efforts  of  Adam,  Maillart  and  Delibes. 


FRANCE    AND    ITALY  129 


Adolphe  Adam  (1803)  was  a  most  productive  writer.  The  distinctive  features 
of  his  talent  are  opulence  of  melody  and  rhythmic  grace.  The  best  known  of  his 
works  is,  of  course,  the  "Postilion  de  Longjumeau."  Maillart  (1817),  pupil  of 
Hal^vy,  winner  of  the  Prix  de  Rome,  and  author  of  six  operas,  was,  strange  to  say, 
most  successful  in  composing  a  work  that  appeals  especially  to  the  German  mind. 
"Das  Glockchen  des  Eremiten"  still  retains  its  place  in  the  standard  repertories 
of  Germany.  Dehbes  (1836),  composer  of  the  sprightly  comic  operas:  "Le  Roi 
I'a  dit"  and  "Lakme,"  and  of  the  charming  ballets:  "Sylvia"  and  "Coppelia," 
enriched  the  world  with  a  far  higher  type  of  composition  than  either  Adam  or 
Maillart.  His  music,  by  virtue  of  its  grace  and  refinement,  is  of  such  intrinsic 
value  as  to  entitle  Delibes  to  be  ranked  among  the  foremost  composers  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Application  to  lighter  forms  only  by  no  means  excludes 
sterling  musicianship.  Delibes'  music  is  typically  French,  and  by  its  very  naivete, 
descriptive  powers  and  clever  instrumentation  overcomes  the  impediment  of  a 
frequently  faulty  libretto. 

IV. 

It  is  proposed  to  classify  under  one  distinctive  and  decidedly  exclusive  heading 
the  names  of  six  truly  eminent  composers,  who,  as  worthy  contemporaries  and 
successors  of  Berlioz,  may,  with  him,  be  regarded  as  the  foremost  French  repre- 
sentatives of  the  nineteenth  century.  These  are  Thomas,  Gounod,  Saint-Saens, 
Bizet,  Chabrier,  and  Massenet.  All  these  men  have  become  famous  as  dramatic 
writers,  but  the  scope  of  their  genius  is  such  as  to  entitle  them  to  almost  equally 
high  rank  as  composers  of  orchestral  and  chamber  music.  It  is  further  proposed 
to  single  out  Saint-Saens  as  being  undoubtedly  the  greatest  French  orchestrator 
since  Berlioz,  although  the  present  writer  is  incliued  to  believe  that  Chabrier  would 
have  equalled  him,  had  not  his  career  been  abruptly  ended.^^^^  At  all  events, 
Saint-Saens  and  Richard  Strauss  are  at  present  the  imdisputed  living  masters  of 
orchestration.^^^^ 

In  order  to  discover  to  what  extent  Saint-Saens  has  been  aided  by  his  immediate 
compatriots,  one  must  turn  to  the  sound  methods  and  sterling  achievements  of 
Ambrose  Thomas  (1811-1896).  A  worthy  exponent  of  lyric  opera,  Thomas 
possessed  like  Gounod  a  high  degree  of  musical  intelligence.  His  music  contains 
the  essence  of  polish  and  refinement,  but  its  very  elegance  is  at  times  detrimental 

(^')  Another  interesting  and  rather  bold  point  of  view  in  reference  to  the  significance  of  Chabrier's 
undertakings  is  to  the  effect  that  "Chabrier  was  an  inspired  experimenter,  but  would  never  have  become 
a  master ;  nevertheless,  his  experiments  are  more  valuable  to  art  than  the  mastery  of  Saint-Saens." 

(")  See  footnotes  on  pages  137  and  161  in  reference  to  the  masterly  orchestration  of  Debussy  and  of 
Elgar. 


130  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

to  emphatic  utterance,  to  dramatic  strength,  to  intensity  of  passion.  Certain 
Italian  formulae  are  in  evidence.  German  influence  is  also  apparent.  Neither 
of  these  characteristics,  however,  predominates  over  Thomas'  personal  individuality 
and  French  methods  of  artistic  development.  "Mignon"  is  veiled  in  a  filmy  haze 
of  poesy,  owing  to  the  delicacy  of  its  orchestration.  "Hamlet,"  which  is  in  reality 
a  grand  lyric  tragedy,  represents  an  extreme  phase  of  French  grand  opera.  Wag- 
nerian principles  are  here  frankly  espoused,  whereas  the  solidity  and  vigor  of  the 
orchestration  display  an  advance  upon  the  scoring  of  "Mignon"  and  "Franjoise 
de  Rimini."  Thomas  never  overloaded  his  scores.  The  orchestration  is  clear 
in  ensemble,  ingenious  in  detail,  always  interesting,  appropriate,  varied.  Charac- 
teristic tone-color  and  poetically  conceived  combinations  reveal  the  skilful  hand 
of  a  competent  master. 

Gounod  (181 8-1893)  stands  as  the  most  illustrious  recent  representative 
of  lyric  opera.  Like  Thomas,  he  was  strongly  influenced  by  contemporaneous 
German  progression,  but  in  some  ways  Gounod  exhibits  greater  conservatism  and 
again  greater  license  than  Thomas.  This  composite  style  of  writing  is  undoubtedly 
due  to  the  fact  that  Gounod  diligently  studied  the  works  of  two  composers  of  dif- 
ferentiated views  —  Berlioz  and  Schumann,  allowed  himself  further  to  be  influenced 
by  Weber  and  Wagner,  and  yet  accepted  in  a  measure  the  prevailing  Gallic  con- 
ventionalities of  his  day  as  well  as  the  traditions  inherited  from  Meyerbeer.  Com- 
pared with  Meyerbeer,  however,  Gounod  possessed  a  far  keener  insight  into  those 
essentials  that  lead  to  the  construction  of  a  genuine  music  drama.  Not  that 
Goimod's  operas  embody  such  essentials  to  a  degree  sufficient  to  dignify  them 
with  the  title  of  music  dramas,  for  they  lack  structural  continuity,  contain  an  over- 
abundance of  set  arias,  are  frequently  guilty  of  harboring  superficially  composed 
accompaniments,  and  betray  carelessly  developed  inner  details.  On  the  other 
hand,  Gounod  displays  a  rare  gift  for  melody  and  euphony,  his  feeling  for  genuine 
expression  and  characterization  is  sincere,  the  tone-colors  are  admirably  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  the  situation,  and  his  thematic  development  toward  some 
ultimate  climax  is  often  superb.  In  a  word,  Gounod  stands  midway  between 
the  classical  and  the  popular.  His  music  is  not  quite  pure,  being  tainted  by  a 
suggestion  of  the  sentimental  and  of  the  chanson  style.  In  the  art  of  orchestration, 
however,  Gounod  exhibits  the  unusual  attribute  of  attaining  excellent  results 
without  apparent  effort.  His  scoring  may  not  disclose  material  increase  of  orches- 
tral resources,  since  it  follows  the  general  path  indicated  by  Auber  and  Meyerbeer; 
but  it  further  shows  that  he  possessed  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  German 
science  of  instrumentation  which  he  used  to  good  advantage.  The  lyric  operas 
"Faust,"  "La  Reine  de  Saba,"  "Rom^o  et  Juliette,"  as  well  as  the  oratorios 
"Mors  et  Vita"  and  "The  Redemption"  abound  in  interesting  instrumental  details 
and  clever  orchestral  devices.     Not  only  are  the  vocal  parts  admirably  supported 


FRANCE    AND    ITALY  131 


and  characterized,  but  the  orchestra  also  frequently  reveals  hidden  emotions  and 
passions  of  the  stage  characters  by  means  of  subtle  thematic  reminiscences  from 
eariier  scenes.  This  suggestive  trait  is  pointedly  illustrated  in  "Faust"  when  the 
muted  vi(^uis  break  in  upon  Marguerite's  vain  attempt  to  pray,  with  the  dainty 
waltz  theme  of  her  former  joyous  days.  Another  striking  feature  of  Gounod's 
orchestration  is  its  refinement,  and  as  already  intimated,  few  have  excelled  him 
in  ability  to  procure  rich  effects  with  comparatively  simple  means.  Thus  the 
"  Redemption"  is  scored  for  but  eight  instruments  of  wood,  four  horns,  two  trumpets, 
three  trombones,  kettle-drums,  bass-drum,  cymbals,  together  with  strings  and 
organ.  Even  when  the  organ  is  silent,  the  results  are  remarkably  full  and  sonorous 
in  spite  of  the  absence  of  triplets  of  wood  instruments,  of  English  horn,  of  bass- 
clarinet,  of  bass-tuba,  and  of  the  harp.  In  all  of  Gounod's  works  it  will  be  foimd 
that  particularly  the  brasses  are  made  to  yield  soft  harmonies  of  limpid  purity, 
whereas  the  instruments  of  percussion  are  reserved  to  reproduce  novel  and  pictur- 
esque effects.  Incidental  mention  must  further  be  made  of  his  free  use  of  the  harp, 
as  illustrated,  for  example,  by  the  slow  scale  for  that  instrument  in  the  middle  of 
the  introduction  to  "Faust." 

^*^  Saint-Saens  (1835),  greatest  of  living  French  composers  and  mightiest 
of  her  orchestral  exponents  after  BerHoz,  is  assuredly  a  modem  composer  in  the 
full  sense  of  that  expression.  Yet  the  background  of  his  principles  differs  but 
slightly  from  those  of  Thomas  and  Gounod.  Plainly  in  evidence  are  the  outlines 
of  Meyerbeer's  operatic  forms,  in  spite  of  Saint-Saens'  obvious  desire  to  break  away 
from  recognized  models.  On  the  other  hand,  the  suppression  of  detached  numbers 
and  the  adherence  to  representative  and  guiding  themes  disclose  his  involuntary 
leanings  toward  the  doctrines  of  the  Bayreuth  master,  notwithstanding  his  openly 
avowed  avoidance  of  such  intentions  beyond  the  willingness  to  accept  the  advanced 
spirit  of  the  age.  But  as  to  this,  it  has  even  been  claimed  that  Saint-Saens  was  the 
first  French  master  to  apply  Wagnerian  principles,  even  though  doing  so  with 
discretion.  Finally,  this  peerless  contemporary  seems  to  have  appropriated  to 
himself  all  the  virtues  of  eclectic  orchestration  without  one  mitigating  vice,  and 
crowns  this  achievement  with  the  indelible  impress  of  his  own  intensely  original 
individuality  to  an  extent  that  is  verily  epoch-making  in  the  history  of  orchestral 
evolution.  The  dual  aspect  of  his  symphonic  works  presents  a  unique  contrast, 
displaying,  as  it  does,  their  author's  versatility.  Saint-Saens  has  expressed  himself 
both  in  symphonies  and  in  symphonic  poems.  There  are  four  of  each  on  record. 
Of  the  former,  that  in  C  minor  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  most  interesting.  It 
contains  no  programmatic  idea,  and  at  first  sight  would  appear  to  embody  a  depart- 
ure from  classic  form  in  that  it  is  laid  out  in  two  grand  divisions.  Closer  scrutiny, 
however,  reveals  a  faithful  adherence  to  accepted  usage,  for  the  first  division  con- 
(*)   See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  76  to  82. 


132 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


tains  an  introduction,  an  allegro,  and  an  adagio,  whereas  the  formal  structure  of 
the  second  division  can  be  analyzed  into  what  are  in  reality  a  scherzo  and  a  finale. 
Reminiscent  themes  and  episodes  from  the  first  division  reoccur  in  the  second, 
in  order  to  give  coherence  and  organic  unity  to  the  work  as  a  whole.  Another 
interesting  feature  of  this  symphony  is  the  adaptation  of  Wagner's  "Lohengrin" 
methods  for  the  wood-wind.  The  score  also  includes  parts  for  organ  as  well  as 
for  pianoforte.  The  four  symphonic  poems  are  none  of  them  of  the  same  magnitude 
and  significance  as  those  of  Liszt;  but  just  as  Liszt's  form  is  simpler  and  more 
readily  to  be  grasped  than  that  of  Berlioz,  so  Saint-Saens'  formal  structure  may 
be  regarded  as  advancing  yet  further,  if  clearness  and  compactness  be  the  desired 
objective.  "  Phaeton "  ^*^  and  "Le  rouet  d'Omphale"  ^^Misplay  marvellous 
skill  in  scoring;  "La  jeimesse  d'Hercule"  ^''^  is  the  most  elaborate,  whereas  the 
"Danse  Macabre"  ^^^  is  the  most  characteristic  as  well  as  the  most  popular. 
Saint-Saens'  chamber  music  affords  an  interesting  study  in  diversity  of  style  between 
it  and  that  of  his  eminent  contemporary,  Brahms.  Both  styles  display  a  master's 
touch,  but  Saint-Saens'  chamber  music  is  conspicuous  for  its  simphcity  of  treat- 
ment and  admirable  clearness.  He  has  given  still  further  proof  of  versatility  in 
a  series  of  memorable  concertos.  Had  Saint-Saens  been  content  to  write  nothing 
beyond  such  sterling  instrumental  works  as  just  referred  to,  his  reputation  would 
not  have  suffered.  But  the  full  strength  of  his  greatness  reveals  itself  in  attain- 
ments of  still  wider  significance.  In  addition  to  several  oratorios,  including  the 
so-called  Biblical  opera  "Le  Deluge,"  no  less  than  nine  operas  must  be  accredited 
to  his  pen,  and  of  these,  "Samson  et  Dalila"  looms  up  as  the  ideal  embodiment 
of  Saint-Saens'  highest  creative  genius.  Lofty  imagination,  naturalness  of  expres- 
sion and  dramatic  intensity  join  in  making  this  opera  his  greatest  masterpiece. 
Unique  is  the  opening  chorus  for  the  captive  Hebrews  in  oratorio  style,  whereas 
the  ballet  in  the  last  act  presents  an  effective  adaptation  of  the  peculiar  Eastern 
scale.  The  orchestration  is  elaborate,  rich  and  varied,  —  intricate  without  being 
obtuse.  Saint-Saens  wields  his  large  orchestral  forces  with  unerring  judgment; 
the  score  abounds  in  effects  now  scintillating  or  impassioned,  now  melancholy  or 
heroic.  The  addition  to  the  usual  couplets  of  wood-wind  of  a  third  flute,  an  English 
horn,  a  bass-clarinet  and  a  contra-bassoon  again  demonstrates  the  indispensabihty 
of  triplets  of  related  instruments.  Opportunity  for  obtaining  pure  tone-color  in 
independent  harmony  from  each  family  of  the  brass  is  effected  by  employing  four 
horns,  by  the  imion  of  two  trumpets  and  two  comets,  by  adding  to  the  three  trom- 
bones a  bass-tuba,  and  by  making  further  requisition  for  two  opheicleides,  which 
together  with  the  bass-tuba  are  capable  of  independent  deployment.  The  strings 
are  reenforced  by  two  harps.  The  array  of  instruments  of  percussion  would 
appear  rather  formidable;  nevertheless,  they  are  never  used  aggressively.    This 

l»)  Ex.  79.  (b)  Ex.  76,  77,  78.  (c)  Ex.  82.  (d)  Ex.  80,  81. 


FRANCE    AND    ITALY  133 


group  includes  three  kettle-drums,  a  bass-drum,  cymbals,  tam-tam,  a  triangle, 
a  Glockenspiel,  a  tambour  de  basque,  and  crotales  or  castagnettes  made  of  wood 
and  iron.  May  Saint-Saens  live  to  enthrall  the  world  a  second  time  with  a  work 
that  shall  rival  if  not  surpass  in  beauty  the  rare  seductive  charm  of  "Samson  et 
Dalila"  1 

No  opera  has  won  greater  universal  popularity  than  that  which  has  immortalized 
the  name  of  its  author,  Bizet  (1838-1875).  What  is  more,  this  unreserved 
approval  is  merited  and  will  endure.  An  elaborate  discussion  of  his  style  would 
be  futile;  every  professional,  every  amateur  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  it.  The 
prevalent  custom  of  French  composers  to  build  upon  French  traditions,  but  to 
allow  German  truthfulness  of  expression  and  interpretation  to  dominate  their 
works  was  consistently  followed  by  Bizet.  The  complaint  has  been  made  that 
the  traditional  disconnected  forms  of  "Carmen"  hamper  the  dramatic  action  of 
an  otherwise  perfect  creation.  Continuity  of  music  might,  perhaps,  enhance  its 
already  unexcelled  effectiveness,  but  such  questionable  criticisms  are  indeed  paltry 
in  the  face  of  such  melodic  and  harmonic  originality,  such  dramatic  intensity, 
such  orchestral  color!  Bizet's  skill  in  discovering  novel  traits  of  instrumentation 
was  little  short  of  marvellous.  The  orchestra  prepares,  accompanies,  and  moralizes 
upon  the  action.  There  is  a  wealth  of  rhythm  and  color;  absolutely  truthful 
characterization  and  the  finest  of  feeling  for  artistic  details  are  revealed  on  every 
page.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  "  L' Arlesienne "  has  not  been  considered  worthy 
of  more  frequent  performance.  Though  its  libretto  cannot  be  compared  with 
that  of  "Carmen,"  Bizet's  setting  of  " L' Arlesienne "  is  in  some  respects  more 
artistic  than  that  of  his  masterpiece.  Its  orchestration  is  practically  inseparable 
from  the  drama  itself,  whereas  a  considerable  portion  of  "Carmen"  can  be  given 
on  the  concert  stage  with  good  effect.  Parenthetically  it  might  be  added  that  the 
former  work  contains  in  its  prelude  a  highly  ingenious  solo  for  the  rarely  heard 
saxophone. 

In  the  repertoire  of  a  few  progressive  European  stages  is  to  be  found  a  work  of 
exceptional  genius  entitled  "Gwendoline"  by  Emmanuel  Chabrier  (1841-1894). 
So  highly  imaginative  and  poetical  are  its  attributes  as  to  warrant  the  assertion  that 
"  Gwendoline"  is  the  best  recent  French  opera,  if  not  the  most  advanced  exposition 
of  existing  Franco-German  music  dramas.  No  less  an  authority  than  Reyer,  was,  in 
spite  of  his  usually  conservative  views,  moved  to  criticise  this  masterpiece  in  the 
following  favorable  terms:  "  Je  me  trouve  en  presence  d'une  oeuvre  extr^mement 
interressante,  renfermant  des  pages  superbes  et  qui  dans  ses  parties  les  moins 
saillantes,  porte  quand  meme  la  griffe  puissante  d'un  compositeur  admirablement 
done."  Chabrier  did  not  devote  himself  seriously  to  music  until  he  was  nearly 
forty  years  of  age.  Shortly  before  deciding  to  become  a  professional,  he  had  been 
quite  successful  with  an  opdra-bouffe  called  "L'Etoile. "     "Gwendoline,"  how- 


134  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

ever,  developed  at  one  stroke  his  dormant  creative  powers  in  a  manner  truly  remark- 
able. (Charming  though  inconsistent  is  the  adaptation  of  an  Irish  melody  in  one 
of  the  most  picturesque  scenes.)  An  enthusiast  for  Wagner,  Chabrier  nevertheless 
branched  out  into  a  style  that  is  distinctly  his  own.  The  libretto  of  "  Gwendoline" 
may,  perhaps,  bear  some  resemblance  to  "Der  Fliegende  Hollander"  and  to 
"Lohengrin."  Gwendoline's  recital  of  her  dream  in  the  first  act  is  suggestive 
of  Senta's,  whereas  in  the  second  act,  the  love  scene  after  the  pagan  marriage 
ceremony  recalls  the  similar  episode  between  Elsa  and  Lohengrin.  Not  so  with 
the  music.  Striking  originality,  daring  harmonic  innovations,  and  above  all 
marvellous  skill  in  orchestral  treatment  constitute  the  distinctive  features  of  Cha- 
brier's  individuality.  The  present  writer  has  had  opportunity  for  studying  the 
manuscript  score  of  "Gwendoline"  after  its  revision  by  the  eminent  Bayreuth 
and  Mimich  director,  Hermann  Levi.  Judging  from  previously  heard  perform- 
ances, there  had  been  pictured  a  monumental  accumulation  of  black  notes  and 
an  intricate  web  of  interwoven  polyphony.  These  expectations  were  not  justified. 
Needless  to  say  that  the  instrumentation  is  not  that  of  a  Mozart,  nor  are  the  usual 
complicated  and  massive  resources  of  modem  orchestration  lacking  at  the  necessary 
moment.  On  the  other  hand,  the  reticence  displayed  during  most  of  the  accom- 
panying polyphony  to  the  vocal  parts  rivals  that  of  Wagner's  highest  attainment 
as  embodied  in  the  first  act  of  "  Die  Walkiire."  Effects  that  suggest  to  the  listener 
the  union  of  peculiar  composites  of  tone-color,  resolve  themselves  on  paper  to 
perhaps  a  few  simple  chords  for  flutes  in  their  low  range,  extending  across  the 
entire  page;  or  again  to  the  gentle  undulations  of  muted  strings  deployed  in  keys 
of  many  signatures,  whereby  subdued  and  grayish  tints  are  procured.  Chabrier's 
orchestration  suggests  a  progressive  yet  peculiar  phase  of  Wagnerism  enveloped 
by  a  tinge  of  melancholy  and  softened  by  the  delicate  touch  characteristic  of  the 
French.  Masculine  scoring  as  embraced  in  the  rather  brutal  overture  is  the  excep- 
tion rather  than  the  rule.  The  first  act  of  a  second  unfinished  music  drama  en- 
titled "Briseis"  was  edited  a  few  years  ago  by  Levi,  but  in  spite  of  its  undeniable 
originality,  it  proved  a  disappointment  to  the  present  writer.  Chabrier  further 
wrote  a  comic  opera:  "Le  Roi  malgre  Lui,"  which,  though  daintily  scored,  is 
also  inferior  to  his  masterpiece.  The  orchestral  rhapsody  "Espana"  with  its 
wonderful  exhibition  of  skilful  instrumentation  constitutes  his  only  really  popular 
work,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  may  not  be  far  distant  when  the  musical 
world  shall  awake  to  the  significance  of  "Gwendoline." 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  limited  appreciation  shown  for  Chabrier's  eminent 
accomplishments  is  the  universal  fame  enjoyed  by  Massenet  (1842)  during  his 
lifetime.  Essentially  a  dramatic  writer,  the  latter  has  tried  his  hand  at  both 
comic  and  grand  opera.  Of  the  former,  "Manon"  is  a  general  favorite;  of  the 
latter,  wide-spread  interest  has  been  excited  by  "Herodiade,"  "Le  Cid,"  and 


FRANCE    AND    ITALY  135 


"Werther. "  The  music  to  De  Lisle's  "Les  Erinnyes"  deserves  notice  if  for  no 
other  reason  than  the  peculiar  antique  coloring  that  permeates  the  orchestration. 
Massenet  possesses  above  all  a  highly  developed  feeling  for  sensuous  charm.  His 
style  is  distinctly  poetic  and  presents  no  exception  to  the  prevailing  custom  of 
embodying  both  the  guiding  theme  idea  as  well  as  the  more  general  philosophical 
and  orchestral  principles  of  Wagner.  Unreserved  acceptance  of  such  theorems  in 
their  extreme  phase  reveals  itself  in  the  recently  presented  "Werther."  Much 
of  Massenet's  harmonic  treatment  displays  undeniable  traits  of  originality,  and 
his  scoring  is  rich  and  variated.  His  activity  also  as  a  composer  for  the  concert 
stage  has  been  imtiring,  but  he  is  at  his  best  as  an  operatic  writer,  nor  do  his  orches- 
tral works  approach  those  of  Saint-Saens.  As  to  this,  however,  neither  has  any 
other  modem  French  composer  as  yet  equalled  Saint-Saens,  even  though  several 
younger  writers,  and  notably  Debussy,  are  successfully  demonstrating  possibil- 
ities quite  beyond  the  scope  of  Saint-Saens'  achievements.  Of  Massenet's 
orchestral  works,  the  most  important  to  be  recorded  are  the  two  suites,  the 
"Hungarian"  and  the  "Scenes  pittoresques, "  besides  the  overture  to  Racine's 
"Phedre."  This  last  is  undeniably  Massenet's  representative  concert  piece, 
embodying  as  it  does  virile  force,  impassioned  sentiment  and  exceptional 
orchestration. 

V. 

As  in  Germany  so  in  France  has  the  array  of  sterling  composers  belonging 
to  the  nineteenth  century  assumed  such  extensive  proportions  that  the  historian's 
well-meant  intentions  to  be  concise  are  in  danger  of  being  frustrated.  Only  with 
regret  can  the  temptation  to  search  for  further  indications  of  orchestral  innovations 
be  set  aside.  On  the  other  hand,  one  is  obliged  to  concede  that  the  recent  progress 
of  French  instrumentation  is  entirely  due  to  the  series  of  eminent  composers  with 
which  we  have  just  been  occupied,  nor  has  the  art  of  orchestration  advanced  as 
yet  beyond  that  of  Saint-Saens  and  of  Chabrier,  unless  we  accept  the  efforts  of 
Debussy  as  rich  in  promise  as  well  as  in  interest.  Omitting,  therefore,  the  names 
of  a  host  of  other  worthy  aspirants,  there  remains  only  the  seemingly  indispensable 
mention  of  two  secondary  composers  of  recognized  merit:  Dubois  and  Paladhile; 
—  of  the  eminent  expounders  on  orchestration:  Gevaert  and  Lavoix;  —  of  the 
literary  writers  and  champions  of  the  new  school  of  thought:  Vidal,  Benoit  and 
Joncieres;  —  of  the  organist-composers:  Guilmant  and  Widor;  —  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  fair  sex:  Augusta  Holmes  and  Cecile  Chaminade,  together  with 
one  of  the  most  recent  comets  on  the  dramatic  horizon:   Gustave  Charpentier. 

The  works  of  Dubois  (1837)  bear  the  stamp  of  exceptional  ability  and  versatility. 
In  addition  to  a  successful  grand  opera  entitled  "Aben  Hamet,"  the  list  includes 


136  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

an  oratorio  "Paradise  Lost,"  a  ballet  "La  Farandole,"  a  concert  overture  "Frith- 
jof,"  a  pianoforte  concerto,  and  several  orchestral  suites.  Paladhile  (1844),  a 
pupil  of  Haldvy,  has  made  himself  popular  with  "  Mandolinata,"  besides  winning 
the  respect  of  the  professional  world  in  the  cosmopolitan  field  of  grand  and  comic 
opera,  symphonies,  masses,  and  minor  works. 

By  a  strange  coincidence  the  three  standard  expositions  of  practical  instru- 
mentation and  aesthetic  orchestration  are  conceived  in  the  French  language,  — 
the  authors  of  these  works  being,  of  course,  Berhoz,  Gevaert  and  Lavoix.  Gevaert 
(1828)  merits  the  reputation  not  only  of  a  musical  savant  but  of  a  prohfic  composer 
as  well.  His  "Nouveau  Traite  de  L'Instrumentation "  is  not  only  a  worthy  sequel 
to  Berlioz's,  but  has  to  a  great  extent  actually  displaced  it.  Of  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent stamp  but  equally  indispensable  to  the  student  of  orchestral  evolution  is 
the  comprehensive  "Histoire  de  L'Instrumentation"  by  Lavoix  (1846).  Further 
eulogistic  comments  upon  these  world-renowned  treatises  would  seem  superfluous. 

The  literary  writer,  Vidal  (1820),  must  also  be  mentioned  as  an  authority  in 
one  branch  of  instrumentation  by  virtue  of  his  voluminous  work  entitled  "Les 
Instruments  k  archet. "  It  contains  an  admirable  account  of  stringed  instruments 
as  well  as  of  their  makers,  their  performers,  their  composers.  Benoit  (1834) 
is  identified  with  the  advancement  of  musical  art  in  Flanders,  and  the  nature  of 
his  teachings  emphasizes  his  strong  Germanic  convictions.  He  set  to  music  several 
Flemish  melodramas,  but  is  especially  to  be  commended  for  an  essay  on  "L'Ecole 
de  Musique  Flamande  et  son  Avenir."  The  unflinching  attitude  of  Joncieres 
(1839)  in  favor  of  the  Bayreuth  master  contributed  materially  in  overcoming  both 
dogmatic  and  racial  prejudice.  His  literary  writings  reveal  the  mind  of  a  keen 
musical  critic,  but  his  compositions  lack  significance  in  spite  of  being  extremely 
modem. 

The  ascendency  of  modem  French  organ  playing  has  been  brought  about  by 
Guilmant,  Widor,  and  their  associates.  But  this  is  not  their  only  claim  to  recog- 
nition, for  their  creative  efforts  bear  directly  upon  the  art  of  orchestration.  Guil- 
mant (1837)  has  displaced  the  classical  organ  concerto  with  string  accompaniment 
by  creating  a  more  pliable  form  under  the  heading  of  "symphony  for  organ  and 
orchestra."  Widor  (1845)  ^^s  likewise  shown  a  progressive  spirit  in  his  various 
organ,  chamber,  and  orchestral  works,  which  are  notable  for  their  artistic  skill  and 
for  their  display  of  poetic  imagination. 

To  be  looked  up)on  as  the  first  of  the  gentler  sex  to  hold  a  conspicuous  position 
among  modem  French  composers  is  no  small  honor.  This  privilege  has  been 
granted  to  both  Augusta  Holmes  and  Cecile  Chaminade.  What  is  more,  their 
achievements  entitle  them  to  a  footing  equal  in  rank  to  many  of  their  most  eminent 
masculine  rivals.  Not  content  to  restrict  themselves  only  to  smaller  forms  of 
composition,  both  of  these  women  have  aspired  to  higher  flights  in  the  realm  even 


FRANCE    AND    ITALY 


^37 


of  symphony  and  opera.  Nor  have  their  efforts  been  futile,  for  they  both  have 
written  masterpieces  of  enduring  worth.  Augusta  Hohnfes,  also  known  under  the 
nom  de  plume  of  Hermann  Zenta,  was  a  pupil  of  Cesar  Franck.  In  consequence, 
her  style  and  orchestration  have  acquired  a  certain  solidity  and  dignity  that  act 
as  an  admirable  counterpoise  to  the  lightness  of  touch  and  dainty  scoring  that 
are  to  be  expected  from  a  woman.  The  opera  "Hero  et  Leandre"  and  the  sym- 
phonic poems  "Irlande"  and  "Pologne"  may  be  looked  upon  in  the  light  of  her 
most  representative  works.  Better  known  in  America  is  her  sister-composer, 
Chamuiade,  whose  charming  songs  and  pianoforte  pieces  appeal  to  both  profes- 
sional and  amateur.  The  fact  of  her  being  Moszkowski's  sister-in-law  has  its 
significance  in  the  plausible  assumption  that  his  example  and  guidance  may  have 
aided  the  full  development  of  her  creative  powers.  The  most  characteristic  phase 
of  her  individuaUty  finds  expression  in  a  pianoforte  concerto  and  in  the  symphonie- 
ballet  "CaUirhod."  Both  these  works  present  much  that  is  interesting,  and  are, 
moreover,  effectively  orchestrated. 

It  is  yet  too  early  to  judge  whether  the  fame  of  Gustave  Charpentier  (i860) 
is  destined  to  be  effervescent  or  enduring.  At  the  present  moment  both  the  opera 
"Louise"  and  his  orchestral  efforts  have  most  assuredly  excited  more  than  passing 
comment.  Other  contemporary  Frenchmen,  however,  such  as  Faure,  Chausson, 
Bruneau,  Debussy,  have  in  turn  also  attracted  attention,  but  with  the  exception  of 
Claude  Debussy  (1862),  none  of  them  prove  worthy  of  retaining  more  than  the 
respectful  esteem  of  the  public.^"^  Charpentier's  "Louise"  is  conspicuous  for  its 
incidental  episodes  that  are  fuU  of  action,  and  the  work  in  its  entirety  presents  an 
attractive  series  of  contrasted  tableaux.  The  opera  embodies  an  interesting  experi- 
ment in  that  the  lines  of  the  hbretto  are  of  a  decidedly  colloquial  genre.  The 
music  is  modem  in  the  extreme  and  suggests  Wagnerian  influence  as  pronoimced 
as  that  of  any  other  French  composer  with  the  possible  exception  of  Chabrier. 
The  latter,  however,  appropriated  to  himself  little  more  than  Wagner's  fundamental 
distribution  of  orchestral  forces,  whereas  Charpentier  has  unquestionably  permitted 
the  distinctive  atmosphere  of  "  Die  Meistersinger  "  to  permeate  portions  of  his  opera. 
The  vocal  parts  are  designedly  declamatory  rather  than  melodic,  unvocal,  and  exces- 

(")  During  the  past  two  years  particularly,  Debussy's  orchestral  compoations  have  awakened  much 
interest  in  France  and  in  the  United  States,  while  his  opera  "Pell^as  et  Melisande"  to-day  shares  critical 
favor  in  Paris  with  Charpentier's  "  Louise."  Both  these  operas  are  being  performed  in  New  York 
during  the  present  season  of  1907-1908. 

The  orchestration  of  "  Pelleas  et  Melisande "  strengthens  the  previously  formed  conviction  that 
Debussy  is  proving  a  worthy  elaborator  upon  Saint-Saens'  lucid  and  refined  methods.  The  key-note 
is  transparency  combined  vrith  an  all-sufiicient  sonority.  In  a  word,  the  cardinal  feature  of  Debussy's 
scoring  is  the  indispensability  of  each  note,  each  phrase,  each  melody,  even  when  assigned  to  the  so- 
called  secondary  instruments  of  the  orchestra  —  and  this  is  by  no  means  invariably  the  case  in  the 
scores  of  even  such  masters  as  Wagner,  Elgar,  Richard  Strauss! 


138  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

sively  difficult.  The  regisseur  of  the  Munich  Opera,  Anton  Fuchs/^*^  declares  that 
in  all  his  experience  at  Bayreuth  he  never  found  a  more  knotty  problem  to  solve  than 
in  teaching  the  singers  the  correct  intonation  of  some  of  Charpentier's  vocal  cues. 
"Louise"  is  scored  with  the  same  due  regard  for  proper  effect  that  in  these  days 
is  required  of  all  meritorious  composers.  Although  the  orchestration  may  at 
times  be  somewhat  noisy  and  overburdened,  it  reveals  numerous  insignia  of  charac- 
teristic individuality.  Charpentier's  orchestral  music  which  M.  Colonne  has 
recently  been  presenting  to  the  American  public  is  on  the  whole  analogous  to 
that  of  "Louise,"  and  the  instrumentation  is  imbued  with  delicacy  and  refinement. 

VI. 

The  attitude  of  the  French  public  toward  orchestral  concert  music  has  under- 
gone a  radical  change  during  the  last  fifty  years.  Habeneck's  efforts  during  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  were  indeed  praiseworthy  and  productive,  but 
to  the  modem  conductors,  Pasdeloup,  Lamoureux,  and  Colonne  belongs  the  honor 
of  having  placed  concert  music  in  France  on  a  par  with  that  of  the  drama.  The 
story  of  their  unprecedented  activity  has  been  frequently  recorded  but  wall  bear 
repetition  in  consequence  of  its  wide  significance.  The  peculiar  fact  that  until 
recent  times  practically  all  French  composers  won  distinction  in  operatic  lines 
before  attempting  orchestral  works  has  already  been  sufficiently  emphasized. 
It  will  be  remembered,  however,  that  even  in  the  eighteenth  century  determined 
efforts  had  been  made  to  establish  orchestral  concerts  on  a  permanent  footing, 
though  they  could  not  then  hope  to  rival  the  allectations  afforded  by  the  dramatic 
stage.  Retrospection  shows  us  that  in  1725  a  brother  of  the  composer,  Francois 
Philidor,  founded  the  "Concerts  spirituels,"  which  were  subsequently  fostered 
by  Mouret  and  other  worthy  conductors.  In  1770  the  "Concerts  des  Amateurs" 
as  established  by  Gossec  proved  such  a  success  that  he  followed  up  the  enterprise 
by  reorganizing  the  venerable  "Concerts  spirituels."  With  the  advent  of  Che- 
nibini,  French  concert  music  received  a  still  more  powerful  impetus,  and  through 
his  resistless  energy  "La  Society  des  Concerts  du  Conservatoire"  sprang  into 
existence. 

This  is  the  organization  that  gave  Habeneck  (i  781-1849)  an  opportunity  to 
distinguish  himself.  He  repaid  the  debt  with  interest,  for  these  concerts  owe  their 
subsequent  world-wide  fame  primarily  to  him.  Dating  approximately  from  the  year 
of  Beethoven's  death,  new  life  was  infused  into  this  reorganized  institution  by 
reason  of  Habeneck's  contagious  enthusiasm,  and  it  was  he  who  initiated  the 
French  people  into  the  inner  mysteries  of  Beethoven's  immortal  creations. 

('*)  It  is  but  justice  to  accord  Anton  Fuchs  a  large  measure  of  credit  for  the  recent  successful  series 
of  performances  of  Wagner's  "Parsifal"  in  New  York  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House. 


FRANCE    AND    ITALY  139 


In  1 85 1,  two  years  after  the  death  of  Habeneck,  there  was  founded  a  second 
concert  organization  that  was  destined  to  bring  both  inspiration  and  recognition 
to  many  a  young  composer  of  the  modem  French  School.  It  was  founded  by 
Pasdeloup  (1819-1887)  and  went  under  the  name  of  "Societe  des  jeunes  artistes 
du  Conserv^atoire. "  It  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  "Concerts  du  Conser- 
vatoire" which  continued  to  exist  in  connection  with  the  conservatory  proper. 
Out  of  this  "Societe  des  jeunes  artistes"  emanated  in  1861  the  "Concerts  popu- 
laires  de  musique  classique, "  which,  as  the  name  implies,  was  a  further  progressive 
step  in  affording  the  general  public  opportunity  for  hearing  good  music  at  popular 
prices.  Pasdeloup's  undertakings  had  for  their  original  object  the  rendition  of 
the  best  classical  works.  But  the  productions  of  contemporaneous  composers 
both  native  and  foreign  were  by  no  means  excluded,  and  so  such  men  as  Lalo, 
Bizet,  Saint-Saens  and  Massenet  were  not  slow  to  be  the  gainers  thereby.  That 
Pasdeloup  was  eventually  forced  into  the  background  by  Lamoureux  and  Colonne 
is  but  another  proof  of  the  fickleness  and  gross  ingratitude  of  the  general  public. 
In  vain  did  Pasdeloup  in  1886  duplicate  Godard's  previous  attempt  to  revive  the 
"  Concerts  populaires, "  and  this  signal  defeat  undoubtedly  hastened  his  end  which 
took  place  one  year  later. 

The  career  of  the  violinist  and  conductor,  Lamoureux  (1834),  has  been  triumph- 
ant from  the  time  when  in  association  with  Colonne  he  established  a  society  for 
the  performance  of  chamber  music  up  to  the  time  of  his  retirement  in  1897.  In 
1873  ^^  established  an  oratorio  society  which  went  under  the  name  of  the  "Soci^t^ 
de  Musique  sacr^e."  Subsequently  he  became  conductor  at  the  Grand  Op^ra 
as  well  as  of  the  Conservatoire  concerts.  His  crowning  achievement  was  the 
founding  in  1881  of  the  "Nouveaux  Concerts,"  better  known  as  the  "Concerts 
Lamoureux." 

Colonne  (1838),  greatest  of  all  exponents  of  Berlioz  and  a  zealous  interpreter 
of  Wagner,  instituted  in  1874  a  series  of  performances  under  the  name  of  the  "Con- 
certs du  Chatelet"  that  have  since  made  his  name  famous.  At  the  present  day 
he  still  ranks  as  the  most  eminent  contemporary  French  conductor.  His  activity 
shows  no  signs  of  abatement,  for  season  after  season  finds  him  and  his  orchestra 
furthering  the  cause  of  French  music  in  the  musical  centres  of  Europe  as  well  as 
in  America. 

Neither  the  orchestras  of  Lamoureux  nor  of  Colonne  can  be  excelled  in  smooth 
and  velvet-toned  string  playing,  or  in  the  purity,  the  sympathy,  and  at  times  the 
pathos  that  distinguish  the  quality  of  the  wood-wind  instruments.  In  French 
orchestras,  however,  the  brass  does  not  always  possess  that  solidity  and  richness 
found  in  representative  German  orchestras.  This  defect  may  be  due  to  the  reten- 
tion of  at  least  one  alto  trombone,  whereas  the  Germans  now  use  either  three  tenor 
trombones,  or  two  tenor  and  one  bass.    The  bass-tubas  also  are  frequently  too 


I40  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

light  and  small.  Particularly  in  some  renditions  of  Wagnerian  works  is  the  undue 
prominence  of  inadequately  balanced  brass  occasionally  noticeable.  Finally, 
the  metallic  quality  of  the  kettle-drums,  which  effects  the  coloring  of  the  entire 
orchestra,  sounds  foreign  to  ears  accustomed  to  instruments  of  less  pronounced 
incisiveness.  These  criticisms  are  equally  pertinent  to  Italian  orchestras,  but  do 
not  appear  to  be  objectionable  to  the  composers  of  either  France  or  Italy.  In  a 
word,  therefore,  the  performance  of  French  orchestras  displays  a  marvel  of  refine- 
ment and  finish  even  to  the  minutest  of  details,  but  lacks  ideal  balance  and  fulness 
in  loud  ensemble  passages. 

Such  is  the  story  of  French  musical  progression  during  the  nineteenth  century! 
Though  she  inaugurated  no  such  reforms  as  those  that  signalize  the  "Sturm  und 
Drang"  period  in  Germany,  France  has  a  record  to  show  that  is  indeed  an 
enviable  one.  Formerly  surpassed  by  the  parent  of  Romance  nations  —  Italy, 
France  has  in  recent  years  left  that  country  far  behind  in  matters  both  artistic 
and  musical.  For  half  a  century  Italy  has  now  been  represented  by  but  one 
luminary  of  the  first  magnitude.  Conspicuous  in  his  solitary  grandeur,  this 
versatile  hero  has  captivated  in  turn  the  hearts  of  all  peoples,  whether  Latin, 
Germanic,  or  Anglo-Saxon.  In  every  clime  is  the  name  chosen  for  our  following 
discourse  a  familiar  household  word, — the  name  of  that  wonderful  melodist,  Verdi. 


ITALY. 
VII. 

The  last  extended  reference  to  Italian  music  is  to  be  found  in  Chapter  VTII, 
which  treats  of  the  contemporaries  of  Beethoven.  Those  pages  call  attention  to 
Spontini's  historic  grand  opera,  to  Rossini's  seductive  charm,  and  to  the  "melli- 
fluous fabrications  of  Donizetti  and  Bellini  with  which  undramatic  productions 
must  be  classed  also  the  earlier  works  of  Verdi  in  consequence  of  their  voluptuous 
melodic  exuberance." 

Verdi  (1813-1901)  exhibits  in  the  development  of  his  creative  power  a  series 
of  progressive  stages  that  are  in  some  respects  analogous  to  Wagner's  evolutionary 
periods.  Just  as  Wagner's  operas  and  music  dramas  can  be  separated  into  three 
general  groups,  so  may  Verdi's  productions  be  subjected  to  similar  analytical 
treatment.  It  will  be  remeinbered,  however,  that  the  orchestration  of  Wagner 
necessitated  a  second  independent  classification  which  partially  ignores  the 
aesthetic  and  philosophical  aspect  of  subject-matter.  With  Verdi,  on  the  other 
hand,  dramatic  style,  musical  treatment  and  orchestration  matured  simultaneously 
and  gradually. 

There  is  no  call  to  refer  to  works  anteceding  "Nabucco,"  which  launched 


FRANCE   AND    ITALY 


141 


Verdi  on  his  unprecedented  career.  The  first  group  may  therefore  include  such 
operas  as  "Nabucco,"  "I  Lombardi,"  and  "Eraani."  The  sole  claim  to  merit 
that  these  works  can  ofifer  is  in  their  wealth  of  melody,  further  enhanced  by  con- 
siderable rhythmic  variety.  Displaying  closer  resemblance  to  Meyerbeer's  style 
than  to  il  bel  canto  of  Rossini,  they  further  embody  reminiscences  of  Bellini,  and 
their  favorable  reception  may  have  been  aided  by  these  very  reminiscences.  From 
an  artistic  standpoint  they  contain  little  worthy  of  commendation.  They  lack 
depth  of  feeling,  whereas  both  form  and  instrumentation  are  conventional  and 
commonplace.  Orchestral  color  depends  largely  upon  violent  and  frequently 
illogical  dynamic  contrasts. 

Typical  of  the  second  group  are  "Rigoletto,"  "La  Traviata,"  and  "II 
Trovatore."  A  further  division  might  have  been  made  in  consequence  of  the 
superiority  of  "II  Trovatore"  over  "Rigoletto."  Such  exact  distinctions,  how- 
ever, do  not  seem  necessary  in  this  discussion.  These  works  show  more  earnest 
search  for  truthful  and  impressive  expression,  greater  harmonic  variety,  and  freer 
treatment  of  the  inner  and  lower  parts.  The  dramatic  effects  are  of  an  intensity 
rarely  surpassed.  The  music  is,  however,  not  only  passionate  but  violent,  and 
the  tonal  effects  often  suggest  unnecessary  noise  rather  than  satisfying  sonority. 
As  Ferris  expresses  it:  "Verdi  storms  the  ear  and  captivates  the  senses,  but  does 
not  subdue  the  soul."  "Rigoletto"  shows  increased  regard  for  judicious  orches- 
tration and  that  particularly  in  the  deployment  of  the  wood-wind.  The  scoring 
of  "La  Traviata"  is  picturesque  and  consistent.  "II  Trovatore"  presents  pas- 
sionate outbursts  of  feeling,  a  certain  striving  after  effects,  whereas  the  instru- 
mentation reflects  in  its  not  infrequent  coarseness  the  brutal  tendencies  of  the 
subject-matter  itself.  As  a  whole,  however,  the  orchestration  possesses  more 
independence  and  richer  tonal  variety  than  that  of  Verdi's  preceding  works. 

The  third  and  last  group  is  comprised  of  the  "  Manzoni  Requiem,"  the  operas 
"Aida,"  "Othello,"  and  the  lyric  drama  "Falstaff."  The  last  named  might 
almost  be  classified  by  itself,  representing  as  it  does  the  extreme  phase  of  Verdi's 
involuntary  adaptation  of  Teutonic  dogmas  both  ancient  and  modem.  In  spite 
of  his  obvious  intention  to  make  this  his  masterpiece,  it  presents  a  line  of  depart- 
ure not  suited  to  his  most  felicitous  style  of  writing.  However,  this  dramma 
lirico  has  borne  fruit  in  so  far  as  to  be  a  source  of  inspiration  to  Puccini,  Mascagni 
and  Leoncavallo,  although  their  effusions  take  the  form  of  "tragic  operettas." 
In  spite  of  the  display  of  virile  power  in  "Falstaff,"  Verdi  reached  his  highest 
development  in  the  orchestration  of  the  Requiem,  in  the  musical  contents  of 
"Aida,"  and  in  the  dramatic  continuity  of  "Othello."  In  all  these  later  works 
one  finds  unquestionable  evidence  of  Wagnerian  influence,  at  the  least  in  respect 
to  externals.  Notwithstanding  Verdi's  repudiation  of  any  such  intentions,  no  com- 
poser surrounded  by  the  spirit  of  the  times  could  do  other  than  progress.    The 


142  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

most  noticeable  improvements  in  the  third  group  consist  of  freer  use  of  the  dis- 
sonant element,  better  declamation,  higher  regard  for  faithful  interpretation, 
painstaking  finish  of  minor  details,  and  above  all  an  extreme  advance  in  the  art  of 
instrumentation.  The  functions  of  the  orchestra  become  more  and  more  import- 
ant, and  the  tonal  colors  acquire  a  richer  and  warmer  hue.  The  scoring  of  the 
Requiem  is  dignified,  religious,  yet  emotional.  That  of  "Aida"  breathes  the 
very  atmosphere  of  its  Egj'ptian  setting.  In  "  Othello,"  the  orchestration  is  essen- 
tially dramatic  and  impassioned.  "Falstaff"  accepts  the  fundamental  principles 
of  Gluck,  and  the  orchestra  is  raised  to  prominence  equal  to  that  of  the  voices. 
As  a  result  of  this  concession,  Verdi  found  Wagner's  orchestral  resources  indis- 
pensable to  his  needs,  and  the  resultant  modem  eflfects  are  a  pleasant  surprise. 
The  vocal  parts  and  the  orchestra  are  here  logically  balanced,  though  Verdi's 
marvellous  gift  as  a  writer  of  pure  and  limpid  melody  continues  in  evidence. 

With  the  evolution  of  this  third  period  was  instituted  one  of  the  mightiest 
transformations  in  the  history  of  Italian  opera.  That  country  has  as  yet  been 
imable  to  replace  him.  The  efforts  of  Ponchielli,  Gomez,  Boito,  Sgambati, 
Buonamici,  Puccini,  are  certainly  praiseworthy,  but  sink  into  insignificance  when 
compared  with  the  splendid  attainments  of  their  venerable  and  venerated  model. 
As  to  the  rocket-like  ascent  and  descent  of  Mascagni  together  with  the  present 
notorietyof  Leoncavallo,  time  alone  will  decide  whether  the  path  they  have  chosen 
be  meritorious  or  meretricious. 

VIII. 

It  will  take  but  a  few  words  to  conclude  the  record  of  musical  activity 
displayed  by  the  recent  representatives  of  the  Latin  races.  They  have  done 
practically  nothing  for  the  cause  of  orchestration  other  than  to  branch  off  into 
infrequented  by-ways  that  have  necessitated  corresponding  orchestral  treatment. 
These  final  remarks  must  therefore  deal  not  with  the  subject  of  instrumentation 
proper,  but  rather  with  the  aesthetic  and  philosophical  aspect  of  modem  Italian 
music,  the  influence  it  has  exerted,  and  the  direction  it  is  taking. 

Ponchielli  (1834)  owes  a  foreign  reputation  to  his  opera  "Gioconda,"  but 
endeared  himself  to  his  countrymen  not  alone  as  a  dramatic  writer  but  also  as 
the  author  of  the  "Garibaldi  Hymn,"  written  in  1882,  four  years  before  his  death. 
He  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  modem  composer  of  Italian  opera 
after  Verdi.  Since  the  Brazilian,  Gomez  (1839),  practically  adopted  Italy  as  his 
home,  he  is  mentioned  in  this  connection.  He  was  a  painstaking  composer,  but 
his  music  frequently  reminds  one  of  Verdi's,  whose  ardent  admirer  he  was.  Boito 
(1842)  possesses  not  only  the  talents  of  an  excellent  composer,  but  of  a  highly 
gifted  poet  as  well.    He  was  the  first  prominent  Italian  to  accept  without  reserve 


FRANCE    AND    ITALY 


143 


the  fundamental  principles  governing  the  Germanic  music  drama,  and  thus 
became  the  head  of  the  Wagnerian  party  in  his  own  country.  His  "Mefistofele" 
did  not  succeed  without  a  struggle,  but  it  is  now  accepted  as  a  standard  opera  of 
universal  fame.  The  orchestral  efforts  of  Sgambati  (1843)  ^^^  analogous  to  Boito's 
adaptation  of  exotic  principles  bearing  on  operatic  forms.  To  Sgambati  belongs 
the  honor  of  being  the  first  Italian  composer  of  the  nineteenth  century  devoted 
to  purely  instrumental  music  and  large  orchestral  forms.  Already  in  his  youth 
he  attracted  attention  in  consequence  of  an  interesting  pianoforte  quartet.  His 
structural  form,  moulded  on  classic  lines,  is  logical  and  well  proportioned,  nor  is  it 
devoid  of  distinctive  characteristics.  His  music  embodies  clear  melodic  delineation 
and  free  harmonization.  The  orchestration  is,  however,  its  best  feature.  It 
displays  sound  judgment,  sentient  appreciation  for  variety,  contrast,  and  tone- 
color;  these  results  are,  moreover,  attained  by  means  of  a  comparatively  small 
orchestra.  Concert  overtures,  chamber  music  and  the  like  are  comprised  in  the 
works  of  Buonamici  (1846)  who  was  a  pupil  of  both  von  Biilow  and  Rheinberger. 
His  chief  claim  to  recognition,  however,  like  that  of  Puccini,  depends  upon  his 
dramatic  effects,  which  have  attracted  considerable  attention.  At  the  present 
moment  Puccini  is  generally  regarded  by  his  countrymen  as  the  foremost  living 
Italian  composer.  His  orchestration  is  rich  and  full,  but  his  music,  in  spite  of 
its  pleasing  melody  and  impassioned  utterance,  betrays  the  influence  of  Ponchielli 
who  in  turn  drew  inspiration  from  Verdi. 

What  shall  be  said  about  Mascagni  and  Leoncavallo  ?  What  have  they  done 
even  indirectly  for  the  cause  of  orchestration?  Chronologically,  Leoncavallo 
(1858)  precedes  Mascagni  (1863),  but  without  "Cavalleria  rusticana"  to  establish 
a  precedent,  "I  Pagliacci"  might  never  have  created  the  furor  that  it  has.  A 
discussion  as  to  the  relative  merits  and  defects  of  their  notorious  productions 
would  be  here  out  of  place.  As  to  their  relative  orchestration,  that  of  Mascagni 
shows,  on  the  whole,  a  lack  of  genuine  musicianly  training.  Although  it  must 
be  conceded  that  he  elicits  highly  dramatic  and  intensely  passionate  accents  from 
the  orchestra,  the  substance  of  his  orchestration  has,  on  the  whole,  a  false  ring  to 
it  and  is  of  a  hoarse  quality  of  tone.  It  lacks  balance,  lacks  taste,  lacks  judgment, 
and  is  at  times  coarse  even  to  brutality.  That  of  Leoncavallo  is  decidedly  more 
refined  and  original.  Here  again  the  key-note  is  a  striving  after  unnatural  effects; 
but  the  orchestra  is  at  least  full  of  life,  impassioned,  descriptive. 

The  earlier  achievements  of  Ponchielli,  Boito  and  Sgambati  are  assuredly  of 
more  enduring  worth.  These  three  representative  men  may  be  regarded  as  the 
only  noteworthy  Italian  composers  bom  after  Verdi  and  before  1850.^"^    Such  is 

(")  Although  Giacomo  Puccini  (1858)  has  long  since  been  held  by  his  countrymen  at  his  true  valua- 
tion, it  is  only  during  the  past  few  years  that  the  world  at  large  has  come  to  realize  that  his  productions 
are  more  significant  than  those  of  Mascagni  and  Leoncavallo  who,  until  1896,  had  won  an  international 


144  ^-^^  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

the  present  meagre  record  of  a  country  that  can  boast  of  an  illustrious  throng  of 
preceding  prodigies!  ^^°^ 

reputation  that  temporarily  overshadowed  that  of  Puccini.  Even  though  Puccini  lays  himself  open  to 
criticism  as  to  the  aesthetic  value  of  his  choice  of  librettos  in  which  ultra-sensationalism  frequently  plays 
so  conspicuous  a  role,  there  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that  his  operas  "La  Boheme"  and  "Tosca"  have  now 
been  pennanently  admitted  to  the  standard  repertoires  of  the  dramatic  stage,  and,  together  with  his 
recent  success,  "  Madam  Butterfly,"  have  caused  the  entire  musical  world  to  put  their  stamp  of  approval 
upon  the  earlier  verdict  of  Puccini's  countrymen  in  regarding  him  as  a  worthy  successor  to  Verdi  and  as 
the  most  gifted  living  representative  of  Italian  operatic  art. 

(*)  Wolf-Ferrari  (1876)  is  probably  the  youngest  living  composer  to  whom  already  more  than 
fleeting  recognition  has  been  accorded.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  decide  under  what  classification  he 
should  be  placed.  With  a  German  father,  his  mother  an  Italian,  and  married  to  an  American,  his 
instincts  are  Italian,  though  he  owes  the  stability  of  his  musical  training  to  Rheinberger  at  Munich.  His 
melodic  form  is  conspicuously  Italian,  while  his  harmonic  substructure  is  more  or  less  Teutonic.  His 
orchestration  is  eclectic;  on  the  other  hand,  its  cardinal  characteristic  consists  of  a  happy  appropriation  of 
Mozart's  naive  touch.  In  a  word,  one  might  go  yet  farther  and  say  that  it  is  precisely  this  naivete,  not 
alone  in  orchestration  but  in  musical  substance  as  well,  that  makes  Wolf-Ferrari's  music  so  refreshing. 
He  owes  the  opening  up  of  his  career  to  the  opera  "Die  neugierigen  Frauen,"  which  has  enjoyed  a 
notable  and  wide-spread  popularity  in  Germany,  whereas  he  has  already  demonstrated  his  ability  to 
handle  large  vocal  and  orchestral  forces  for  concert  performance  by  his  setting  of  Dante's  "La  vita 
nuova,"  which  has  also  excited  favorable  comment  in  Germany  and  has  just  been  performed  in  New 
York  with  success. 

(Summary  on  page  178.) 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HUNGARY  AND  BOHEMIA;  SCANDINAVIA  AND  RUSSIA; 
ENGLAND  AND  AMERICA. 


Hungary.  The  music  of  Hungary  with  specific  relation  to  orchestration 
calls  for  but  brief  comment  beyond  what  has  already  been  said  in  connection  with 
Liszt  on  page  92  and  with  Cjoldmark  on  page  85.  It  will  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  Liszt's  Hungarian  origin  revealed  itself  not  so  much  in  an  indigenous 
style  of  composition  as  in  the  propagation  of  those  musical  characteristics  peculiar 
to  his  race.  This  adaptation  and  development  of  native  dance  tunes  received 
plastic  form  in  his  "Hungarian  Rhapsodies."  Goldmark,  on  the  other  hand, 
cannot  properly  be  regarded  as  an  Hungarian  composer  at  all.  His  music  is 
German  rather  than  Magyar,  eclectic  rather  than  local.  He  revels  in  the  insidious 
atmosphere  of  the  Far  East.  These  two  men  are,  however,  the  only  composers  of 
unusual  eminence  Hungary  has  produced.  A  small  group  of  men  may  have  re- 
mained more  faithful  to  Magyar  traditions  than  Liszt  and  Goldmark,  but  the 
results  of  their  efforts  are  not  significant.  What  these  secondary  composers  did 
accomplish  can  be  embraced  in  a  few  words.  Before  doing  so,  however,  it  might 
be  well  to  settle  upon  the  exact  definition  of  "Hungarian"  music.  A  quotation 
from  Parry's  "Art  of  Music"  would  appear  to  answer  this  question  to  the  best 
advantage:  "The  original  Hungarian  music  is  extraordinarily  characteristic 
in  rhythm  and  vigorous  in  melody,  but  devoid  of  ornament.  The  recognized 
musicians  of  Hungary  are  gypsies,  who  are  of  Oriental  descent,  and  are  well  known 
for  their  taste  for  finery  and  ornamentation  all  the  world  over;  and  in  their  hands 
Hungarian  music  has  become  the  most  ornamental  thing  of  its  kind  that  Europeans 
are  acquainted  with.  The  ornaments  are  perfectly  meaningless,  except  as  implying 
singular  dexterity  of  manipulation  and  an  extraordinary  aptitude  for  purely  super- 
ficial invention  in  the  decorative  direction.  Hungarian  music  belongs  to  the 
illustration  of  making  a  special  rise  to  the  highest  point  in  the  middle  or  early  in 
the  latter  part  of  a  tune.  With  the  Hungarians  both  the  dance  tunes  and  local 
tunes  are  so  full  of  energetic  intervals  and  rhythms  that  even  when  there  are  no 
crises  the  impression  produced  is  often  emotional. " 


146  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Representative  adherents  to  Magyar  characteristics  are  Franz  Erkel  (18 10), 
Mosonyi  (1814),  Albert  Doppler  (1821),  his  brother,  Karl  Doppler  (1826),  and 
Czibulka  (1842).  By  admitting  the  cosmopolitans,  Liszt  (181 1)  and  Goldmark 
(1830),  this  list  of  Hungarian  composers  is  sufficiently  complete  for  all  present 
purposes.  Erkel  and  the  elder  Doppler  are  looked  upon  as  the  leading  national 
opera  composers.  Of  the  two,  Erkel  displayed  the  greater  originality.  Author 
of  no  less  than  nine  operas,  he  reached  his  highest  attainments  in  "Bank  Ban" 
and  "Hunyadi  Laszlo."  The  latter  combines  native  traits  with  German  and 
Italian  operatic  and  orchestral  traditions,  Albert  Doppler's  foreign  reputation  is 
primarily  due  to  his  extensive  concert  tours  as  a  flute  virtuoso.  His  additional 
activity  as  a  composer,  however,  gave  him  high  standing  in  his  own  country.  The 
present  writer  recalls  an  interesting  conversation  with  his  brother,  Karl  Doppler 
— -late  Kapellmeister  at  Stuttgart  —  in  reference  to  the  opera  "Erzebeth"  written 
jointly  by  Erkel  and  the  two  Dopplers.  He  described  the  work  as  "Gelegen- 
heitsmusik";  such  was  the  haste  demanded  by  the  attending  circumstances,  that 
the  first  act  was  put  into  rehearsal  before  the  last  act  was  completed,  whereas  Karl 
Doppler  himself  was  still  busy  scoring  (in  Italian  style)  on  the  very  day  appointed 
for  performance.  Erkel's  contemp)orary,  Mosonyi  or  Michael  Brandt,  displayed 
considerable  versatility  in  forms  both  small  and  large,  whereas  Czibulka  repre- 
sents a  later  generation  of  Hungarian  composers.  His  position  as  bandmaster 
at  Vienna  gave  him  opportunity  to  cultivate  his  native  attributes  in  the  guise  of 
dance  music,  in  addition  to  which  he  wrote  an  operetta  entitled  "Pfingsten  in 
Florenz." 

It  cannot  be  said  that  the  collective  efforts  of  these  composers  have  developed 
a  national  style  of  orchestration.  There  is  plenty  of  color  and  variety  in  their 
scoring,  but  the  latent  charm  of  their  works  is  the  result  of  melodic  and  rhythmic 
novelty,  and  not  of  instrumentation. 


II. 

Bohemia.  In  marked  contrast  to  the  above-mentioned  limitation  is  the  evolu- 
tion of  Bohemian  orchestration,  especially  when  one  considers  the  fact  that  the 
pioneer,  Smetana,  was  content  to  build  upon  Mozart's  system  of  scoring,  whereas 
already  in  the  next  generation  his  illustrious  pupil,  Dvorak,  developed  that  art 
to  a  point  excelled  by  none.  To  mention  these  two  men  is  synonymous  for  both 
the  birth  and  the  maturity  of  a  native  Bohemian  school  of  composition.  They 
both  relied  upon  the  Folk-song  as  a  basis  for  operation,  but  Dvorak  advanced  far 
beyond  his  master.    A  worthy  successor  to  these  two  men  has  not  yet  appeared 


HUNGARY    AND    BOHEMIA 


147 


upon  the  horizon,  even  though  Dvorak's  pupil,  Joseph  Suk,  reveals  latent  possi- 
bilities for  future  prominence/^^^ 

Smetana  (1824-1884)  is  a  typical  Czechish  composer.  Though  he  studied 
for  a  short  time  under  Liszt  and  showed  himself  an  enthusiastic  follower  of  the 
"New  Movement,"  his  melody  and  rhythm  are  thoroughly  Bohemian;  moreover, 
his  music,  like  his  orchestration,  occasionally  reveals  a  certain  naive  touch  of 
Mozart.  Smetana  wrote  as  many  as  eight  operas,  but  the  very  first  of  these,  **  Die 
verkaufte  Braut,"  not  only  gave  him  his  foreign  reputation,  but  has  proved  the 
best  and  most  enduring  of  them  all.  The  overture  of  this  work,  with  its  magni- 
ficent fughetta,  forms  an  admirable  concert  number  by  itself.  It  might  be  inci- 
dentally added  that  this  overture  contains  horn  attacks  of  such  difficulty  as  to 
have  proved  a  stumbling  block  at  public  performance  to  no  less  an  orchestra  than 
the  Royal  band  in  Munich  under  Levi's  magnetic  baton  some  fifteen  years  ago. 
Smetana's  affiliations  with  Liszt  bore  fruit  in  a  worthy  series  of  symphonic  poems, 
whereas  his  native  inheritance  is  emphasized  in  his  national  dances  for  pianoforte. 


m. 

(*)  Dvorak  (1841-1904)  shares  with  Saint-Saens,  Tschaikowsky  and  Richard 
Strauss  the  distinction  of  having  done  more  for  the  advancement  of  modem  orches- 
tration than  any  other  composer  since  Wagner.  For  his  conservation  of  classic 
symphonic  forms  he  might  be  ranked  as  an  extreme  classical-romanticist,  but  he 
has  gone  far  beyond  Brahms  or  Rheinberger  in  that  his  harmonic  progressions 
are  novel  and  daring,  his  orchestration  varied  and  rich.  Moreover,  his  music  is 
conspicuously  national  in  character  and  embodies  the  very  essence  of  Bohemian 
melody  and  rhythm.  But  though  Dvorak's  form  may  be  orthodox,  it  is  never- 
theless subjected  to  differentiated  transformations  according  to  the  particular 
branch  of  composition  that  is  being  treated.  In  this  he  resembles  Saint-Saens, 
and  some  interesting  comparisons  might  be  made  between  the  latter's  symphony 
in  C  minor  and  Dvorak's  "From  the  New  World."  It  will  be  recalled  that  this 
successful  experiment  of  Saint-Saens  allows  of  but  two  grand  structural  divisions, 
which,  however,  reveal  the  outlines  of  the  traditional  four  movements.  Organic 
unity  is  obtained  by  reintroducing  important  subject-matter  from  the  first  part  of 
the  work  into  the  second.  Neither  Saint-Saens  nor  Dvorak  make  use  of  a  dra- 
matic scheme  like  Berlioz's  "Symphonic  fantastique"  with  its  Videe  fixe,  but  as 

C^)  Joseph  Suk  (1874)  continues  to  command  critical  favor,  as  evidenced,  for  example,  by  his 
successful  appearance  on  the  concert  stage  of  Berlin  in  the  fall  of  1906.  Particularly  his  "Scherzo 
fantastique"  is  widely  known  and  well  received. 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  90  to  96. 


148  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Kxehbiel,  the  eminent  New  York  critic,  states  it:  "Dvorak  in  his  symphony 
entitled  "From  the  New  World,"  in  which  he  has  striven  to  give  expression  to  the 
American  spirit,  quotes  the  first  period  of  his  principal  subject  in  all  subsequent 
movements,  and  then  sententiously  recapitulates  the  principal  themes  of  the  first, 
second  and  third  movements  in  the  finale;  and  this  without  a  sign  of  the  dramatic 
purpose  confessed  by  Berlioz." 

Dvorak's  chamber  music  presents  still  another  phase  of  the  subtle  manner  in 
which  he  retains  and  yet  remodels  the  outlines  of  classic  form.  In  regard  to 
musical  contents,  the  essence  of  national  melody  and  rhythm  is  ever  in  evidence, 
but  whereas  in  their  original  shape  these  folk-tunes  are  frequently  commonplace 
and  even  vulgar,  Dvorak's  brilliant  imagination  transforms  them  into  worthy 
conceptions  that  are  both  dignified  and  noble.  These  he  adorns  with  vivacious 
yet  refined  orchestration. 

Yet  another  illustration  of  Dvorak's  versatility  is  displayed  in  the  "Spectre's 
Bride,"  which  embraces  in  a  felicitous  manner  the  supernatural  element  peculiar 
to  the  works  of  Spohr  and  Weber. 

As  has  been  already  intimated,  the  paramount  accomplishment  of  this  modem 
luminary  was  his  colossal  development  of  orchestral  resources.  One  can  point 
to  his  symphonies  as  models  for  brilliant  scoring.  The  "Spectre's  Bride,"  the 
Stabat  Mater,  the  Requiem  abound  in  beautiful  combinations.  The  orchestra- 
tion is  warm  and  rich  ^*^  without  being  overburdened,  interesting  and  varied,  yet 
appropriate  and  consistent.  Minor  details  receive  careful  attention.  The  string 
writing  is  clear  and  bright, ^^^  whereas  in  the  handling  of  the  wood-wind  instru- 
ments Dvorak  shares  with  Brahms  the  tendency  to  fall  back  upon  Schubert's 
methods.  ^*'^ 

One  by  one  our  great  contemporary  masters  are  passing  away.  Be  it  hoped 
that  at  a  not  far  distant  day  Bohemia  may  again  send  forth  a  missionary  to  our 
climes  worthy  of  rank  with  Dvorak! 


SCANDINAVIA  AND  RUSSIA. 
IV. 


Scandinavia.  Analogous  to  the  development  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury of  Hungarian  and  Bohemian  folk-tunes  is  that  of  the  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries. Just  as  Germany  can  point  to  her  Lied  and  France  to  her  chanson  as  the 
basis  for  scientific  secular  music  on  the  Continent,  so  is  the  recognition  of  the 
younger  musical  countries  dependent  upon  the  distinctive  features  of  their  native 

(a)  Ex.  93,  96,  (b)  Ex.  91.  (c)  Ex.  90. 


SCANDINAVIA    AND    RUSSIA  149 

melodies.  America  presents  a  unique  exception  to  this  rule.  For  variety  and 
expression,  Nonvegian  and  Swedish  folk-tunes  compare  favorably  with  those  of 
Russia.    A  conspicuous  characteristic  of  eariy  Scandinavian   folk-tunes  is  the 

progression  to  the  minor  seventh  of  the  scale  through  its  fifth.      1^    ]  bJ    *         B 


Again,  many  peculiarities  popularly  regarded  as  Grieg's  exclusive  property  con- 
stitute in  reality  the  fundamental  characteristics  of  the  original  source  from  which 
he  has  drawn  his  inspiration.  The  national  music  of  all  three  countries,  Denmark, 
Norway,  Sweden,  embodies  shortness  of  theme,  reiteration  of  the  same  interval, 
shifting  tonality,  aUiance  of  binary  and  ternary  rhythm,  and  the  plaintive  fall  of 
the  leading  tone  to  the  dominant.  To  Denmark  belongs  the  honor  of  having 
produced  the  pioneer  exponent  of  native  melodies  and  native  characteristics  — 
Gade.  His  achievements  have  since  been  eclipsed  by  Norway's  sturdy  represen- 
tative —  Grieg.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  century  several  Swedish  composers 
made  a  creditable  showing,  but  in  recent  years  Norway  seems  to  have  established 
her  ascendency.  After  Gade,  the  only  Danish  composer  who  has  attracted  especial 
attention  beyond  the  boundaries  of  his  own  lands  is  Enna.  Few  modem  Swedish 
composers  have  risen  conspicuously  above  their  predecessors,  Lindblad,  Hall- 
strom  and  Sodermann.  Norway,  on  the  other  hand,  possesses  not  only  Grieg, 
but  Svendsen  and  Sinding  as  well.  The  racial  affinity  disclosed  by  the  music  of 
all  these  composers  makes  possible  a  collective  review  of  their  achievements  in 
chronological  order. 


Already  in  the  initial  Swedish  productions  are  national  tendencies  to  be  found. 
Subject-matter,  coloring,  harmonic  and  rhythmic  structure  all  reveal  the  same 
general  source.  Lindblad  (1801)  became  known  as  the  teacher  of  Jenny  Lind 
and  also  as  a  composer  of  songs.  His  melody  and  harmony  are  original  and 
characteristic.  His  more  ambitious  works  include  a  violin  sonata  and  a  symphony; 
the  latter  was  performed  at  a  Gewandhaus  concert.  Hallstrom  (1826),  in  addition 
to  national  songs,  wrote  seven  operas  as  well  as  a  memorable  Idyl  for  soli,  chorus 
and  orchestra  entitled  "Die  Blumen."  Less  widely  known  is  the  name  of  Soder- 
mann (1832);  nevertheless  his  efforts  are  ambitious  and  ccmprise  an  operetta, 
a  mass,  an  overture  for  orchestra,  and  incidental  music  to  the  "Jxmgfrau  von 
Orleans."  He  owes  his  German  reputation  largely  to  a  composition  for  four 
female  voices,  called  "BroUop,"  which  went  the  rounds  of  that  country  and  was 
popular  in  its  day.  At  least  passing  reference  is  at  this  point  due  to  Normann 
(1831)  in  consequence  of  the  important  services  he  rendered  to  his  country  as  an 
orchestral  conductor. 


150  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Though  Gade  (181 7-1890)  stands  as  the  pioneer  of  Scandinavian  composers 
and  as  chief  representative  of  Denmark,  his  works  do  not  present  unadulterated 
indigenous  characteristics.  The  influence  of  Mendelssohn  as  well  as  of  Schu- 
mann is  plainly  in  evidence;  consequently  he  is  classified  on  page  77  among  the 
direct  followers  of  romanticism.  The  substance  of  Gade's  music  suggests  North- 
em  coloring  and  surroundings,  but  the  presence  of  native  melody,  harmony  and 
rhythm  is  less  conspicuous.  He  adhered  to  the  symmetry  of  sonata  form,  though 
his  thematic  development  is  free  and  his  musical  treatment  unfettered.  Gade 
first  became  known  through  the  overture  "Nachklange  aus  Ossian"  and  the  first 
symphony  in  C  minor.  The  "Crusaders"  still  belongs  to  the  standard  cantatas 
of  the  present  day.  He  had  early  been  a  careful  student  of  representative  scores, 
and  developed  high  efficiency  in  the  art  of  orchestration.  Appreciation  of  the 
possibilities  as  well  as  of  the  limitations  of  each  instrument,  successful  application 
of  "local  coloring,"  and  a  ready  pen  stamp  the  pages  of  his  numerous  symphonies 
and  orchestrally  accompanied  choral  works. 

Turning  to  the  representatives  of  Norway  belonging  to  a  later  generation  than 
Gade's,  one  naturally  recalls  the  name  of  Grieg.  Nevertheless  Svendsen  (1840) 
was  bom  three  years  before  Grieg,  and  holds  a  position  of  eminence  only  secondary 
to  that  of  his  Danish  predecessor  or  of  his  Norwegian  contemporary.  A  violinist 
as  well  as  a  composer,  he  possesses  a  gift  for  spontaneous  and  flowing  melody. 
His  music  rests  on  a  sound  harmonic  basis,  is  cleverly  developed  and  skilfully 
orchestrated.  It  reveals  national  coloring  though  not  to  excess,  and  reflects 
the  mind  of  a  cosmopolitan  musician.  Svendsen's  sphere  of  creative  activity 
embraces  various  orchestral  works,  besides  chamber  music  and  smaller  pieces. 
Prominent  among  these  are  the  four  Norwegian  rhapsodies,  and  he  has  been 
particularly  happy  in  arranging  many  Norwegian,  Swedish  and  Icelandic  melodies 
for  small  orchestra. 

Grieg  (1843)  represents  one  of  the  few  recent  composers  who  have  not  been 
conspicuously  influenced  by  ultra-modern  tendencies  beyond  appreciation  for  the 
necessary  alliance  of  poetry  and  music.  The  exact  value  of  his  attainments  is 
not  easy  to  define.  D.  G.  Mason  has  been  rather  hard  on  him  in  his  thoughtful 
essay  entitled  "  From  Grieg  to  Brahms,"  and  in  Germany  there  is  also  a  dispos- 
ition to  regard  much  of  his  music  as  superficial.  None  the  less,  Grieg's  style 
has  a  charm  about  it  that  is  irresistible,  and  this  charm  goes  far  to  silence  the 
grumblings  of  critics  more  scientifically  and  profoundly  trained  than  he.  But 
it  is  precisely  this  naive  spontaneity,  this  guileless  yet  poetic  touch,  this  flow  of 
fancy  emanating  straight  from  the  heart  that  endears  his  music  to  the  more  appre- 
ciative and  emotional  amateur.  Though  a  pupil  of  the  Leipzig  Conservatory, 
Grieg  early  took  a  firm  stand  against  the  lukewarm  Scandinavianism  of  Gade, 
and  bestirred  himself  in  a  search  for  musical  utterance  that  should  present  the 


SCANDINAVIA    AND    RUSSIA  151 

indigenous  characteristics  of  his  own  people  in  the  most  favorable  light.  His 
solution  of  this  problem  brought  into  existence  a  distinct  Northern  school  of  com- 
position. As  previously  suggested,  many  peculiarities  of  his  music  are  but  the 
adaptation  of  time-honored  Scandinavian  characteristics.  But  though  the  strength 
of  his  works  rests  upon  the  development  of  Danish,  Norwegian  and  Swedish 
Volkslieder,  he  has  imbued  these  with  an  element  of  poetic  coloring,  of  tender 
melancholy,  of  mystery,  of  quaint  humor,  of  grotesqueness  even  to  eccentricity 
that  are  all  his  own.  Grieg's  style  is  frequently  lacking  in  breadth,  nor  does  he 
possess  the  powers  of  a  great  orchestral  composer.  Nevertheless,  his  writing  for 
strings  alone  is  of  surpassing  beauty,  with  its  multiple  division  of  parts,  its  poly- 
phonic voice-leading,  and  its  impassioned  deployment  of  violas  and  violoncellos. 
When  at  his  best,  Grieg  handles  his  larger  orchestral  forces  with  similar  rare  skill. 
The  orchestration  of  Bjornsen's  unfinished  drama  "Olaf  Trygvason"  and  that 
of  the  music  to  Ibsen's  "Peer  Gynt,"  conceived  as  a  melodramatic  scene-painting, 
is  tender,  fervent,  weird,  brilliant,  stormy,  popular,  effective.  Notwithstanding 
all  that  has  been  said,  Grieg  stands  as  one  of  the  most  original  and  healthy  com- 
posers of  the  nineteenth  century.^^^^ 

Of  the  younger  Norwegian  composers,  Sinding  (1856)  has  given  evidence  of  a 
fertile  imagination  that  finds  expression  in  some  pleasing  chamber  music  and  other 
works  in  small  form.  To  judge  from  his  popular  "  Friihlingsrauschen,"  he  must 
be  counted  among  the  admirers  of  Wagner.  His  Danish  contemporary,  August 
Enna  (i860),  has  devoted  himself  to  a  more  ambitious  form  of  composition.  His 
opera  "Heksen"  was  brought  out  at  Copenhagen  in  1892,  and  at  Berlin  in  the 
ensuing  year.  Two  further  operas  of  recognized  merit  have  emanated  from  his 
pen  —  "Cleopatra"  and  "Aucassin  og  Nicolette."  ^"^  The  Scandinavians  are 
not  conspicuously  dramatic,  but  Enna's  grandfather  was  an  Italian,  which  may 
account  for  the  grandson's  histrionic  talent.  There  are  other  names  worthy  of 
mention,  ^^*^  such  as  Tor  Aulin  and  Wilhelm  Stennhammer  ^^^^  of  Sweden ;  up  to 

(">  Edvard  Hagerup  Grieg  died  in  Bergen,  Norway,  on  September  4,  1907. 

(*')  Enna's  recently  composed  opera  "  Aglaia"  has  yet  to  await  the  favorable  verdict  of  the  general 
public.  Taking  into  consideration  the  kindly  and  patriotic  disposition  of  his  own  countrymen  toward 
all  serious  artistic  efforts  on  the  part  of  their  native  composers,  it  is  reasonable  to  predict  that "  Aglaia  " 
will  eventually  receive  the  same  cordial  reception  as  its  predecessors,  at  least  in  so  far  as  the  Danish 
audience  is  concerned.  (During  the  past  year  the  present  writer  has  had  repeated  opportunity  to  note 
the  attentive  attitude  of  the  public  in  the  Danish  capital  toward  aspiring  home  talent,  —  a  national 
trait  of  such  exceptional  virtue  that  it  cannot  be  sufficiently  commented  upon.) 

(**)  This  would  appear  to  be  a  fitting  place  for  mention  of  the  Finnish  composer,  Sibelius  (1865), 
who  has,  during  the  immediate  past  few  years,  added  a  new  name  to  the  list  of  modern  Northern  writers 
for  the  orchestra,  besides  being  distinctly  the  first  composer  of  Finland  to  acquire  international 
reputation. 

e*)  In  the  fall  of  1905,  Stennhammer's  opera  "Das  Fest  auf  Solhaug"  was  heard  for  the  first  time 
at  the  Royal  Opera  House  in  Berlin.  A  condensed  version  of  Ibsen's  drama  constitutes  the  libretto. 
From  the  very  beginning  of  the  introduction  to  the  final  note  of  the  last  act  the  listener  is  primarily 


152  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

the  present  moment,  however,  none  have  proved  worthy  to  be  ranked  with  the 
greatest  of  Scandinavian  composers  —  Grieg. 


VI. 

Russia.  Among  the  phenomena  of  the  nineteenth  century  must  be  reckoned 
the  wonderful  artistic  evolutions  in  Russia  and  in  America.  Of  the  two  countries, 
Russia  has  thus  far  forged  ahead  by  reason  of  her  indigenous  melodic  wealth, 
whereas  America  has  no  similar  source  to  draw  from.  Again,  the  melancholy  and 
semi-barbaric  coloring  of  Russian  folk-times  appeals  more  readily  to  the  world  at 
large  than  do  the  assuredly  more  healthy  though  somewhat  eclectic  offerings  of 
the  young  American  school.  None  the  less,  the  artistic  future  of  the  latter  country 
is  to  be  regarded  in  the  most  optimistic  light,  and  this  certainly  will  be  subsequently 
enlarged  upon  under  its  proper  heading. 

Russian  folk-songs  embody  certain  characteristics  that  are  likewise  at  the  root 
of  Scandinavian  folk-songs.  In  their  natural  and  unadorned  state  they  suggest 
the  rhythmic  freedom  of  Scandinavia,  and  their  dance  forms  are  similarly  wild  and 
irresistible.  Further  characteristics  that  are  more  distinctly  Russian  consist  of 
odd  modulations,  of  plaintive  minor  cadences,  of  harmonies  resolving  abruptly 
into  the  unison,  and  of  the  frequent  recurrence  of  a  principal  theme  alternating 
with  various  reiterated  phrases.  A  possible  reminiscence  of  the  Lydian  and  Dorian 
modes  of  ancient  Greece  might  also  be  suggested.  This  is  the  basis  upon  which 
an  epoch-making  school  of  highly-seasoned  dramatic  and  orchestral  music  has 
been  reared. 

Cultivated  Russian  music  may  be  properly  divided  into  three  distinctive  groups. 
First  came  the  old  lyric-school  of  Glinka,  Dargomizski  and  Seroff,  followed  by  the 
neo-Russian  school  which  includes  Dargomizski  in  his  maturity,  together  with 
Borodin,  Cesar  Cui,  Balakireff,  Mussorgski,  Rimski-Korsakoff,  and  their  asso- 
ciates. A  third  classification  is  required  for  Rubinstein  and  Tschaikowsky  in 
consequence  of  their  less  national  than  cosmopolitan  attributes.  It  is  by  no  means 
intended  to  convey  the  idea  that  Tschaikowsky  was  not  intensely  Russian,  but 
his  broad  education  and  his  intellectual  classicism  distinguish  him  from  his  com- 
patriots. Rubinstein,  on  the  other  hand,  was  more  a  Teutonic  classical-romanticist 
than  a  Slavonic  composer.  This  exposition  will  therefore  first  treat  of  the  typi- 
cally native  composers,  leaving  Rubinstein  and  the  unrivalled  Tschaikowsky  for 
the  end. 

impressed  by  and  almost  solely  interested  in  the  limpid  pureness  and  delicacy,  the  masterly  finish  of 
detail  both  inner  and  outer,  and  the  sensitive  appreciation  for  the  suppression  of  dynamic  excess  as 
revealed  in  its  orchestration.  But  the  immaturity  in  the  literary  form  and  style  of  this  earlier  conception 
of  Ibsen  precludes  the  possibility  of  more  than  momentary  interest  for  Stennhammer's  opera,  unless, 
perhaps,  within  the  confines  of  Scandinavian  shores. 


SCANDINAVIA    AND    RUSSIA  153 


VII. 

Glinka  (1803-1857)  accomplished  for  his  country  what  Smetana  and  Gade 
did  for  theirs.  A  further  unique  comparison  can  be  made  in  that  the  labors  of 
these  three  men  in  each  case  paved  the  way  for  subsequent  herculean  development 
in  the  hands  of  one  conspicuous  successor  of  even  greater  talent  —  respectively 
Dvord,k,  Grieg,  Tschaikowsky.  Although  Glinka,  like  Gade,  devoted  himself  to 
the  propagation  of  national  melodies,  it  is  the  local  coloring  rather  than  subject- 
matter  that  gives  his  music  a  character  of  its  own.  In  this  he  again  resembles 
Gade.  His  very  first  opera  "Life  for  the  Czar"  proved  a  triumphant  success,  and, 
together  with  its  successor  "Ruslan  and  Ludmilla,"  gave  Glinka  the  right  to  be 
called  the  first  great  opera  composer  of  Russia.  His  music  may  not  be  especially 
dramatic,  but  is  significant  for  having  elevated  and  perpetuated  popular  airs, 
which  are  clothed  in  rich  harmonies  and  surrounded  by  a  distinctly  Russian  atmos- 
phere. The  orchestration  calls  for  but  little  comment  excepting  that  it  is  clever 
and  at  times  even  brilliant.  Glinka's  position  in  musical  history  has  been  accu- 
rately described  by  Riemann  when  he  says:  " Glinka  is  the  Berlioz  of  the  Russians, 
the  man  who  attempted  something  new  with  definite  meaning;  but  to  his  country- 
men he  is  still  more,  namely,  the  creator  of  a  national  musical  tendency  striving 
toward  independence." 

Dargomizski  (1813),  second  representative  of  the  old  lyric-school  and  event- 
ually a  convert  to  the  new  Russian  movement,  stands  as  a  noteworthy  example 
for  gradual  artistic  expansion.  Clinging  at  first  to  the  forms  prevalent  in  France 
and  in  Italy,  he  gradually  came  to  attach  greater  importance  to  recitative,  and 
finally  went  even  too  far.  This  extreme  as  to  absence  of  melody  as  well  as  of 
structural  form  reached  its  culmination  in  his  posthumous  opera  "The  Marble 
Guest,"  which  has  since  been  most  effectively  orchestrated  by  Rimski-Korsakoff. 
The  work  is  advanced  both  in  thought  and  treatment,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
initiatory  modem  Russian  opera.  Two  of  Dargomizski's  minor  orchestral  com- 
positions, the  "Finnish  Fantasia"  and  the  "Cossack  Dance,"  acquired  con- 
siderable popularity.  Dargomizski  is  particularly  to  be  commended  for  his 
attitude  as  a  patron  of  the  young  Russian  enthusiasts  whose  tendencies  were  inclined 
toward  Berlioz,  Schumann,  Liszt  and  Wagner. 

Serow  (1820)  —  usually  spelt  Seroff  in  the  English  language  —  belongs  prop- 
erly to  the  earlier  school,  although  he  was  a  zealous  disciple  of  Wagner,  and,  like 
him,  prepared  his  own  librettos.  The  style  of  his  music  is  such  as  to  carry  us 
almost  imperceptibly  across  the  short  bridge  joining  the  first  and  second  groups  of 
Russian  composers. 


154  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

vm. 

As  just  stated,  the  second  group  of  young  composers  found  a  champion  in  their 
senior,  Dargomizski.  The  tenets  of  the  "New  Russian  Movement"  are  closely 
allied  to  those  of  the  "New  German  Movement."  The  programmatic  and  philo- 
sophical theories  of  Berlioz  and  Liszt  applied  to  the  dramatic  orchestra,  and  the 
unreserved  adaptation  of  Wagner's  speech-singing  and  instrumentation  form  the 
basis  for  their  creed.  On  the  other  hand,  they  demand  that  all  "program-music" 
shall  be  of  such  intrinsic  merit  as  to  withstand  the  test  of  being  deprived  of  its 
program.  Prominent  among  these  innovators  was  Borodin  (1834).  His  origin- 
ality displayed  itself  conspicuously  in  independent  orchestral  music  as  exempli- 
fied by  his  two  S3miphonies.  The  style  is  attractive  and  polished,  whereas  a  wealth 
of  orchestral  effects  and  instrumental  tone-color  is  at  his  command.  Further 
proof  of  his  fertility  is  revealed  in  the  opera  "Fiirst  Igor,"  in  the  symphonic  poem 
" Mittelasien,"  and  in  his  chamber  music.  Cesar  Cui  (1835)  holds  a  position  of 
prominence  only  secondary  to  that  of  Rubinstein  and  Tschaikowsky.  He  was  an 
ardent  Uterary  advocate  for  Berlioz,  Schumann  and  Liszt,  whereas  his  vocal  writing 
is  in  reality  the  exposition  of  a  style  akin  to  the  requirements  of  French  prosody. 
Balakireff  (1836)  and  Mussorgski  (1839)  also  belong  to  this  second  group  of  Rus- 
sian composers.  The  former  has  been  called  the  direct  successor  of  Glinka.  The 
compositions  of  the  latter  display  daring  originality  and  a  gift  for  charming  melody, 
although  the  harmom'zation  is  not  always  skilful.  Nevertheless,  both  these  men 
are  outranked  by  Rimski-Korsakoff  (1844),  whose  eminence  is  fully  equal  to  that 
of  Borodin  and  Cesar  Cui.  His  works  include  several  remarkable  symphonies, 
three  operas,  chamber  music  and  salon  pieces.  Special  attention  should  be  called 
to  the  program-symphony  "  Antar"  and  to  a  legend  for  orchestra,  "Sadko."  One 
of  the  youngest  exponents  of  combined  melodic  and  declamatory  styles  is  Arensky 
(1862),  and  the  interest  recently  excited  by  the  third  symphony  in  C  minor  of 
Glazounoff  (1865)  entitles  him  also  to  recognition  under  this  heading. 

This  discussion  may  evoke  the  criticism  that  thus  far  too  little  has  been  said 
about  orchestration  proper  and  nothing  whatever  about  the  details  of  instrumen- 
tation. As  to  this,  however,  it  must  be  remembered  that  modem  Russian  orches- 
tration owes  its  fundamental  characteristics  to  only  one  man  —  Tschaikowsky; 
consequently,  the  examination  of  these  characteristics  has  been  reserv^ed  for  dis- 
cussion in  connection  with  his  titanic  achievements.  All  contemporary  and 
sequent  orchestral  treatment  in  the  hands  of  his  countrymen  is  but  the  reflection 
of  Tschaikowsky 's  style  combined  with  the  further  progressive  methods  of  Ger- 
man and  French  orchestration.  It  is  the  indirect  influence  these  other  composers 
have  exercised  upon  the  art  of  orchestration  rather  than  their  actual  instrumenta- 
tion that  has  needed  elucidation. 


SCANDINAVIA    AND    RUSSIA 


155 


IX. 

For  convenience,  Rubinstein  and  Tschaikowsky  have  been  classed  together  as 
representing  a  third  group  of  Russian  composers.  Theoretically  they  possess 
nothing  in  common  other  than  their  cosmopolitan  proclivities. 

Rubinstein  (i 830-1 894),  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  Russian  composer, 
cannot  be  compared  with  Glinka  as  an  operatic  writer  or  with  Tschaikowsky  as 
an  orchestrator.  Regarded  as  a  classical-romanticist,  he  must  be  included  in  the 
list  of  composers  following  traditional  forms.  What  is  more,  he  was  an  extremist 
in  his  antagonism  to  the  innovations  of  the  New  German  Movement.  This  hos- 
tility exerted  a  baneful  influence  upon  his  instrumentation.  His  intentions  were 
high,  but  the  results  of  uneven  value.  His  music  reveals  a  search  after  fulness 
of  contents,  passionate  strength,  and  a  certain  predilection  for  the  peculiar. 
Euphony  and  rounded  form  are  less  pronounced,  though  occasional  evidence  of 
delicacy  and  even  of  tenderness  is  not  lacking.  Rubinstein  cannot  be  eulogized  as 
a  dramatic  writer,  although  "Feramors"  is  a  pleasing  lyric  opera,  and  the  Biblical 
stage-play  "Sulamith"  presents  a  poetic  idyl  imbued  with  Eastern  color.  Inter- 
esting is  the  embodiment  of  seven  movements  in  the  "  Ocean  Symphony,"  a  work 
that  holds  high  rank  in  musical  literature.  In  string  writing,  Rubinstein  revealed 
fine  appreciation  of  tone-color.  The  instruments  are  handled  with  rare  skill  and 
that  quite  especially  in  his  chamber  music.  But  in  spite  of  a  not  infrequent  dis- 
play of  superb  power,  his  orchestration,  on  the  whole,  was  hampered  by  the  narrow 
prejudice  which  limited  his  horizon. 

The  history  of  Slavonic  music  up  to  the  present  day  will  be  concluded  with 
the  following  brief  remarks  concerning  (*)  Tschaikowsky  (1840-1893).  Though 
he  is  mentioned  last,  one  must  not  forget  that  his  activity  covers  the  same  period 
as  that  of  the  originators  of  the  neo-Russian  school. 

The  composite  of  his  high-strung  and  intensely  aesthetic  nature  may  be 
summed  up  by  saying  that  at  heart  he  was  in  sympathy  with  Liszt;  his  structural 
form  rests  upon  the  intellectuality  of  classicism;  his  conceptions  emanated  from 
Muscovite  melodies  but  are  stamped  with  the  insignia  of  genius  all  his  own;  his 
style  is  essentially  l)Tical,  and  betrays  the  delicacy  and  refinement  of  a  cultured 
Russian.  WTiat  is  more,  there  are  momentary  suggestions  even  of  coyness  that 
are  again  strikingly  contrasted  by  a  certain  barbaric  element  worthy  of  a  barely- 
civilized  Cossack. 

The  peculiar  fascination  exerted  by  his  music  may  be  traced  first  and  foremost 
to  its  dominating  melancholy  character,  although  this  plaintive  strain  is  again  set 
oflF  by  a  certain  vigor,  which  Henderson  calls  "the  outcome  of  a  certain  grim 

(*)  See  Appendix  of  Musical  Illustrations,  Examples  83  to  89. 


156  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

detennination  always  present  in  the  Russian  heart."  It  has  also  been  described 
by  Dannreuther  as  "fiery  exultation  on  a  basis  of  languid  melancholy."  The 
means  which  Tschaikowsky  found  to  express  himself  in  a  language  of  profoimd 
pathos  embodied  the  free  use  of  sombre  chromatic  harmony,  of  minor  modes, 
and  above  all  of  weird  and  gloomy  orchestration. *^*)  The  general  outlines  of 
Tschaikowsky's  music  embrace  melodic  subtleties,  bold  modulations,  florid  figu- 
ration, strongly  marked  rhythm  and  cadences  peculiar  to  his  own  land,  huge 
dimensions,  fantastic  portrayal,  broad  dignity  of  utterance,  and  magnificent  orches- 
tral effects.  The  embodiment  of  native  folk-music  in  no  way  interferes  with  his 
own  intense  originality  and  genuine  spontaneity. 

One  of  the  most  astounding  features  in  Tschaikowsky's  scoring  is  the  extreme 
modern  effect  secured  from  virtually  the  same  orchestra  of  moderate  size  that 
Beethoven  employed.  To  the  uninitiated  auditor,  the  wealth  and  variety  of  tone- 
color  produced  would  appear  to  require  a  mighty  aggregation  of  instruments;  but 
the  "Symphonic  pathetique,"  for  example,  makes  requisition  for  no  more  instru- 
ments than  those  used  in  Beethoven's  grandest  symphonies,  excepting  the  addition 
of  a  bass-tuba.  ^''^  As  for  an  increased  number  of  strings,  the  increase  remains 
in  force  for  modern  performances  of  the  classics  as  well.  In  regard  to  obtaining 
what  has  been  called  "a  gloomy  eloquence  of  instrumentation,"  this  is  effected  by 
drawing  upon  the  deeper  accents  of  the  orchestra.  ^''^  Tschaikowsky  employed 
such  combinations  as  horns  and  bassoons  alone;  English  horn,  bassoons  and 
violas;  the  lower  tones  of  flutes  and  clarinets  also  accompanied  by  violas;  the 
unison  of  English  horn  with  low  strings  as  in  the  cantabile  of  the  overture-fantasy, 
"Hamlet,"  —  a  combination  to  which  Henderson  calls  attention  in  his  admirable 
little  book  on  the  orchestra.  (This  work,  by  the  way,  is  skilfully  written  for  the 
delectation  of  cultivated  amateurs.)  Other  important  contributors  to  Tschai- 
kowsky's subdued  coloring  are  the  clarinets  in  their  lower  range  and  the  bassoons 
in  their  upper  range. ^"^^  The  best  exemplification  of  orchestration  essentially 
mournful  in  character  is  discovered  in  his  last  great  work  —  the  "  Symphonic 
pathdtique"  already  referred  to.  On  the  other  hand,  a  magnificent  specimen  of 
forceful  writing  is  presented  in  the  final  movement  of  particularly  the  C  major 
symphony. 

Recent  development  in  Russia  of  orchestral  resources  is  bearing  delectable 
fruit;  but  without  Tschaikowsky  to  point  the  way,  this  would  not  have  been  pos- 
sible. He  still  reigns  supreme  as  the  greatest  interpreter  of  Slavonic  ideals. 
Tschaikowsky  in  Greater  Russia,  Grieg  in  Scandinavia,  Dvorak  in  Bohemia, 
Saint-Saens  in  France,  Wagner  and  Richard  Strauss  in  Germany,  —  these  are 
the  men  of  the  nineteenth  century  who  have  caused  the  art  of  orchestration  to 

(a)  Ex.  83,  86,  89. 
(b)  Ex.  85.  (c)  Ex.  84,  88.  (d)  Ex,  87. 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA  157 

acquire  distinctively  national  characteristics  suited  to  the  needs  of  differentiated 
national  music.  In  return,  composers  of  all  countries  are  seizing  upon  every 
possible  device  introduced  by  these  innovators,  and  the  twentieth  century  gives 
promise  of  results  cosmopolitan  in  nature  and  superb  beyond  description. 


ENGLAND  AND  AMERICA. 
X. 


England.  Although  the  recent  growth  of  Russian  music  is  of  vast  signi- 
ficance, neither  have  the  Anglo-Saxons  been  idle.  England  can  also  point  to  a 
long  series  of  sterling  composers  belonging  to  the  nineteenth  century.  Among 
the  representative  musicians  who  have  helped  to  develop  a  native  style  of  compo- 
sition and  orchestration  should  be  mentioned  Balfe,  Macfarren,  Bennett,  Bamby, 
Sullivan,  Bridge,  Mackenzie,  Parry,  Cowen,  Stanford. 

At  the  head  of  this  sturdy  list  stands  Balfe  (1808),  whose  continuous  appli- 
cation to  operatic  forms  presents  an  exception  to  the  more  varied  labors  of  most 
English  composers.  Neither  the  substance-matter  nor  the  instrumentation  of 
his  works  merits  the  distinction  of  having  furthered  the  cause  of  indigenous 
English  music.  The  style  is  essentially  Italian.  Balfe  possessed  fluency  of 
expression  and  displayed  aptitude  for  pleasing  melody.  Depth  and  power  were 
not  among  his  attributes. 

An  entirely  different  atmosphere  pervades  the  numerous  productions  of  Sir 
George  Macfarren  (1813).  This  eminent  pioneer  of  nineteenth  century  English 
music  had  the  honor  of  being  bom  in  the  same  year  with  Wagner.  The  cosmo- 
politan range  of  his  compositions  is  noteworthy,  and  his  tireless  activity  in  the 
face  of  an  affliction  that  eventually  ended  in  entire  blindness  entitles  him  to 
unstinted  praise.  His  works  are  among  the  most  important  contributions  to  the 
literature  of  English  music,  covering  as  they  do  every  branch  of  music  from  opera, 
oratorio  and  cantata  to  symphony,  chamber  music  and  sacred  pieces. 

The  reader  wiU  remember  that  on  page  77  of  Chapter  IX,  particular  mention 
was  made  of  Stemdale  Bennett  (1816),  in  view  of  his  association  with  Mendelssohn 
and  Schumann.  The  pith  of  the  remarks  embodied  in  that  paragraph  will,  how- 
ever, bear  repetition,  owing  to  the  significance  attached  to  Bennett's  influence 
upon  modem  English  music.  The  acknowledged  heir  of  Purcell,  he  clothed  his 
individuality  in  the  language  promulgated  by  the  early  Romanticists;  but  though 
his  works  bear  the  undeniable  impress  of  Mendelssohnian  characteristics,  they 
are  none  the  less  original  and  of  enduring  worth.  His  field  of  activity  as  a  com- 
poser was  extensive.     Outside  of  England,  his  oratorio  "The  Woman  of  Samaria  " 


158  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

is,  perhaps,  the  best  known  of  his  various  choral  works,  symphonies  and  con- 
certos. The  high  regard  in  which  he  is  held  by  his  countrymen  reveals  itself  in 
his  title  of  "Founder  of  a  New  English  School." 

To  mention  Bamby  (1838)  in  these  pages  may  appear  somewhat  out  of  place. 
Sacred  music  is  the  line  in  which  he  particularly  distinguished  himself.  In  addi- 
tion to  writing  magnificent  hymns  and  anthems,  he  developed  his  best  gifts  in  such 
works  as  his  psalm  "The  Lord  is  King."  Nevertheless,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
from  a  chronological  standpoint  Bamby  heads  the  list  of  the  more  recent  English 
exponents  of  progressive  ideas,  and  his  advanced  convictions  entitle  him  to  recog- 
nition in  this  discussion  if  for  no  other  reason  than  for  his  zeal  and  perseverance 
in  having  given  in  London  two  concert  performances  of  "Parsifal"  as  early  as  in 
1884.  The  date  of  this  achievement  is  significant  when  one  considers  that  the 
initial  dramatic  performance  of  "Parsifal"  at  Bayreuth  had  taken  place  but  two 
years  before. 

The  most  widely  known  English  composer  of  the  nineteenth  century  is,  of 
course,  Sullivan  (1842).  This  renown  has  been  won  by  virtue  of  a  unique  talent 
for  writing  comic  operas  that  are  gems  of  the  first  water.  On  the  other  hand, 
Sullivan  has  again  and  again  revealed  his  latent  powers  for  composition  in  serious 
vein.  Had  he  elected  to  consecrate  himself  to  the  nobler  form  of  art,  he  might 
have  become  the  greatest  of  all  English  composers.  As  it  is,  he  has  done  much 
for  the  cause  of  Anglicized  music  and  especially  of  Anglicized  orchestration.  The 
author  of  no  less  than  fifteen  operettas  that  are  famed  in  England,  America,  and 
to  a  lesser  degree  in  Continental  Europe,  he  has  clothed  these  works  in  charming 
orchestral  garment.  The  instrumental  combinations  at  his  command  were  small, 
but  he  was  never  at  loss  how  to  use  them  to  best  advaintage.  It  was  his  peculiar 
custom  to  postpone  the  orchestral  scoring  until  all  modifications  as  suggested  by 
preliminary  rehearsals  had  been  decided  upon.  Taking  the  "Mikado"  as  a 
favorable  example,  it  is  seen  that  the  local  coloring  demanded  by  the  setting 
depends  chiefly  upon  the  orchestra.  The  quaint  opening  chorus  for  men  at  the 
very  beginning  of  the  operetta  proves  the  truth  of  this  statement.  Sullivan  based 
his  methods  of  instrumentation  upon  those  of  Mozart,  but  occasionally  copied 
Gounod  and  even  Berlioz.  When,  however,  Sullivan  employs  larger  orchestral 
forces,  his  musicianship,  dramatic  power  and  command  of  resource  seem  to 
expand  in  proportion.  Notable  illustrations  of  original  and  efiFective  scoring  are 
to  be  found  in  his  representative  oratorios  and  above  all  in  his  grand  opera 
"Ivanhoe." 

John  Bridge  (1844)  displays  sound  scholarship  in  a  respectable  list  of  sacred 
music,  cantatas  and  orchestral  works,  but  his  attainments  cannot  be  compared 
with  those  of  Mackenzie  (1847).  The  latter  is  first  and  foremost  an  orchestral 
writer,  in  fact  one  might  say  that  his  conceptions  are  wholly  orchestral.     His  is 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA 


159 


the  realm  of  realism  rather  than  of  idealism.  His  style  reveals  no  great  depth  or 
pathos.  There  is  a  mixture  of  Mendelssohnian  and  Wagnerian  externals.  His 
melody  has  been  styled  angular;  his  harmonic  structure  is  ineflScient,  and  his 
rhythm  monotonous.  Mackenzie's  orchestration,  however,  is  unusual.  Its  many 
excellences  afford  a  striking  contrast  to  the  mediocrity  of  subject-matter.  It  is 
powerful  and  effective,  allowing  also  commendable  freedom  to  the  wood-wind. 
Some  interesting  passages  for  flute  and  oboe  in  combination  with  low  clarinet 
arpeggio  effects  are  contained  in  the  cantata  "The  Story  of  Sayid."  Among 
Mackenzie's  most  notable  achievements  should  be  mentioned  two  operas,  two 
Scotch  rhapsodies,  and  his  magnum  opus,  a  dramatic  oratorio  entitled  "  The  Rose 
of  Sharon." 

There  is  a  double  interest  in  examining  the  musical  compositions  of  Charles 
Hubert  Parry  (1848)  in  consequence  of  his  having  enriched  the  world  with  a 
scholarly  and  broad-minded  work  entitled  "The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music." 
This  standard  book  has  been  quoted  from  more  than  once  in  the  course  of  these 
pages.  Parry  has  tried  his  hand  at  all  forms  of  composition,  including  chamber 
music,  symphonies  and  oratorios.  There  is  a  natural  hesitation  to  pass  individual 
judgment  on  these  works,  so  the  criticism  of  two  contemporary  Englishmen  will 
be  referred  to  instead.  These  two  are  Willeby  and  Stanford.  In  general  terms, 
Willeby  speaks  of  Parry  as  a  man  of  wide  experience  and  absolute  sincerity,  and 
as  one  "devoted  to  liberation."  He  then  goes  on  to  say  that  Parry's  works  show 
traces  of  Beethoven,  especially  of  Brahms,  somewhat  of  Handel  and  Mendelssohn, 
whereas  his  earlier  "Prometheus  Unbound"  is  conceived  in  the  "Tristan"  style; 
but  the  "human"  element  is  lacking.  The  most  complex  methods  are  employed 
to  attain  the  desired  results.  The  obvious  avoidance  of  natural  cadences  is  carried 
to  an  extreme.  The  melodies  are  stately  and  self-possessed  but  become  monoton- 
ous. So  much  for  Parry's  style.  As  to  his  orchestration,  the  opinion  of  Dr. 
Stanford  is  presumably  authoritative  and  is  appended  verbatim:  "  His  orchestral 
sense  is  by  no  means  his  most  highly  developed  sense,  for  while  there  is  no  lack  of 
sonority  in  his  scoring,  there  is  not  infrequently  all  too  little  of  'fancy.'  What 
leanings  he  has  in  this  art  are  certainly  more  toward  Wagner  than  Berlioz,  and 
sometimes  the  incongruity  of  Wagner  in  the  orchestra  and  Brahms  in  the  music 
is  by  no  means  compensated  for  by  what  there  is  of  Parry  in  both."  ^^^ 

Cowen  (1852)  stands  as  one  of  the  representative  English  exponents  of  both 
absolute  and  programmatic  symphonic  writing.     Of  his  five  characteristic  sym- 

C*)  A.  Goring  Thomas  (1851)  should,  chronologically,  be  referred  to  at  this  point  in  view  of  the 
present  continued  popularity  and  frequent  performance  in  the  United  States  of  his  cantata  "The  Swan 
and  the  Skylark,"  even  though  the  wo?k  is  said  to  ha^'e  been  orchestrated  by  Stanford.  On  the  other 
hand,  more  pronounced  independence  is  evidenced  in  such  of  Thomas'  representative  works  as  the 
opera  "Esmeralda"  and  the  choral  ode  "The  Sun  Worshippers."  The  general  substance  of  his  com- 
positions displays  delicacy  and  refinement  in  orchestration  and  the  possession  of  a  real  melodic  gift. 


i6o  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

phonies,  special  reference  is  due  to  the  "Scandinavian,"  No.  3,  the  "Welsh,"  No. 
4,  and  the  one  in  F,  No.  5.  The  fact  that  this  later  symphony.  No.  5,  contains  no 
programmatic  idea,  leads  to  some  conjecture  as  to  what  Cowen's  motive  was  in 
returning  to  the  conservatism  of  pure  and  abstract  music.  This  work  embodies 
considerable  depth  of  sentiment,  sombre  orchestral  coloring,  and  a  possible  touch 
of  Chopin.  Cowen  has  written  several  operas,  but  special  significance  is  attached 
to  his  choral  work  "The  Sleeping  Beauty,"  in  that  it  incorporates  Wagner's  prin- 
ciple of  representative  themes  together  with  their  skilful  thematic  development. 
The  orchestra  plays  an  exceedingly  important  r61e,  even  to  the  occasional  detri- 
ment of  the  vocal  parts. 

Having  listened  to  what  Stanford  had  to  say  about  Parry,  let  us  see  what  Stan- 
ford's music  has  to  say  for  its  author.  Here  again  one  discovers  the  accomplished 
scholar  rather  than  the  artistic  dreamer.  Stanford  (1852)  has  proved  himself  an 
eminent  conductor  and  professor,  but  as  composer,  his  emotional  capacity  is  evi- 
dently limited,  and  his  music  lacks  the  very  essentials  of  ideal  love  and  impassioned 
sentiment  so  conspicuous,  for  example,  in  F^licien  David's  ardent  conceptions. 
Compare  the  glowing  colors  in  David's  "  Lalla  Rookh  "  with  those  in  Stanford's 
opera  "The  Veiled  Prophet  of  Khorassan."  The  latter  does,  indeed,  suggest 
"  local"  color,  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  sensuous  Eastern  charm.  Stanford's  right 
to  share  with  Cowen  the  rank  of  representative  English  symphonist  is  undisputed. 
His  fertile  pen  has  produced  an  honorable  series  of  orchestral  works  that  include 
a  festival  overture  and  four  symphonies.  Prominent  among  these  is  the  "Irish 
Symphony,"  which  again  reveals  a  striving  after  characteristic  portrayal.  Willeby 
also  makes  reference  to  this  in  the  following  terms:  "Here,  for  the  obtainment  of 
local  color,  he  has  called  to  his  aid  all  kinds  of  melodies  and  'modes.'  The 
'Aeolian'  mode  transposed,  which  consists  of  the  scale  having  its  semitonic  inter- 
vals between  the  second  and  third,  and  fifth  and  sixth  degrees,  and  the  'Mixoly- 
dian,'  with  its  semitones  between  the  third  and  fourth,  and  sixth  and  seventh 
degrees,  are  both  extensively  used."  ^^^ 


During  the  last  few  years  a  new  star  has  risen  on  the  British  horizon,  one  that 
promises  to  become  a  permanency,  —  Edward  Elgar  (1851).  His  talent  is  con- 
spicuous, and  he  is  fast  winning  his  way  through  sheer  merit.  Henderson  goes  so 
far  as  to  write  of  him  as  "the  most  promising  of  modem  composers,"  though  this 
is  a  matter  of  opinion.  At  all  events,  Elgar  stands  out  in  marked  contrast  to  his 
more  self-restrained  countrymen  in  that  he  dares  to  break  through  the  barriers  of 

(^)  The  favorable  comment  excited  a  few  years  ago  by  the  cantata  "Hiawatha"  by  H.  Coleridge- 
Taylor  (1875)  has  proved  to  be  of  more  than  passing  endurance.  Mention  of  his  activity,  which 
includes  also  such  works  as  an  operetta,  "Dream  Lovers,"  is  therefore  in  place.  Coleridge -Taylor  is 
the  first  composer  of  African  descent  to  command  serious  recognition. 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA  i6i 

British  good  form  by  employing  a  language  of  emotional  eloquence  and  dramatic 
intensity.  His  handling  of  vocal  forces  does  not  by  any  means  discard  the  time- 
honored  doctrines  of  Bach  and  Handel  so  tenaciously  adhered  to  in  England,  but 
he  combines  classic  polyphony  with  modem  expedients  of  imfettered  chromatic 
harmony  and  throbbing  orchestration.  His  "Dream  of  Gerontius"  and  his  "The 
Apostles"  should  convince  his  compatriots  that  heretofore  they  have  been  content 
to  compose  in  a  manner  all  too  sedate  and  imemotional.  Bennett  founded  a  "new 
school"  of  English  music  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  may  be 
that  the  time  has  now  come  for  a  second  "new  school"  which  shall  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  twentieth  century.  ^^^ 


AMERICA. 
XI. 

In  undertaking  to  set  forth  the  present  conditions  of  American  musical  art  it 
is  realized  that  little  can  be  said  beyond  that  with  which  professional  American 
musicians  are  already  perfectly  familiar.  But  the  future  of  indigenous  American 
music  gives  promise  of  a  significance  so  wide  that  the  reader  will  concede  the  indis- 
pensability  of  embodying  in  this  book  at  least  a  bird's-eye  view  of  an  evolution  that 
is  destined  to  lead  to  glorious  results.  Moreover,  to  refrain  from  repeating  well- 
known  facts  for  fear  of  presenting  trite  material  would  indeed  appear  as  an  inex- 
cusable and  glaring  omission  should  these  pages  ever  come  into  the  hands  of  a 
foreigner. 

In  order  to  cover  the  entire  ground,  it  would  be  necessary  to  touch  upon  the 
rather  doubtful  experiments  of  our  forefathers  during  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries :  —  to  examine  into  the  tardy  emancipation  of  religious  music 
from  the  dogmatic  fetters  of  Puritanism,  to  follow  the  gradual  development  of 
American  hymn-tunes,  and  to  ferret  out  the  initial  encroachments  of  beneficent 

(")  Elgar's  "The  Apostles"  is  the  general  title  of  a  cycle  of  four  works  for  voices  and  orchestra,  of 
which  Part  II,  named  "The  Kingdom,"  was  completed  and  performed  since  the  above  was  written. 
"The  Kingdom"  further  discloses  the  remarkable  indi\'iduality  of  Elgar's  style,  which  in  turn  bespeaks 
the  exalted  spiritual  nature  of  the  man. 

Each  successive  work  that  emanates  from  Elgar's  pen  emphasizes  his  monumental  command  of 
polyphonic  structure  in  its  largest  dimensions,  clothed  meanwhile  in  the  most  realistic  of  orchestral 
garments.  It  would  be  going  too  far  to  aver  that  Elgar  approaches  Richard  Strauss  as  an  orchestrator; 
on  the  other  hand,  it  wall  hardly  be  questioned  that  there  are  three  prominently  conspicuous  composers 
of  the  present  day  who,  having  put  themselves  in  close  touch  with  the  ideals  of  Richard  Wagner  and 
agreeing  to  a  more  or  less  degree  with  the  tenets  of  Richard  Strauss,  stand  forth  as  the  recognized  van- 
couriers  in  their  respective  countries  for  the  most  advanced  phase  of  orchestral  art :  —  Elgar,  Debussy, 
MacDowell. 


1 62  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Teutonic  influence.  Such  preliminaries  may  here  be  dispensed  with.  America 
has  no  native  folk-tunes.  The  experiments  of  our  illustrious  guest,  Dvorak,  to 
adapt  so-called  negro  melodies  as  the  basis  for  future  operation  are  certainly  mas- 
teriy,  —  nevertheless  illogical.  MacDowell's  poetic  "Indian  Suite"  draws  upon 
still  another  source  for  the  same  purpose.  Racial  characteristics  and  local  color- 
ing are  indeed  suggested,  —  but  the  desired  objective  is  not  attained.  Of  similar 
purport  are  the  exhaustive  researches  of  Farwell.  His  deductions  are  intensely 
interesting,  frequently  picturesque,  —  but  again  prove  that  the  primitive  tunes  of 
the  American  Indian  do  not  meet  the  requirements  for  a  national  form  of  melody. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  American  composers  are  obliged  to  rely  upon  their 
own  individual  efforts.  What  is  more,  no  marked  individuality  displayed  itself 
before  the  nineteenth  century.  Anyone  desiring  detailed  information  pertaining 
to  the  infancy  of  American  music  may  be  referred  to  Ritter's  book  on  that  subject 
as  well  as  to  Louis  C.  Elson's  "History  of  American  Music."  Furthermore,  since 
the  main  theme  of  this  discussion  is  orchestration,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  more 
than  touch  upon  the  sterling  achievements  of  the  already  large  list  of  nineteenth 
and  twentieth  century  composers  who  are  so  worthily  furthering  the  artistic  cause 
of  their  country.  Detailed  biographies  of  these  men  are  also  to  be  found  in  Elson's 
work  as  well  as  in  Rupert  Hughes'  "Contemporary  American  Composers." 

During  the  nineteenth  century  America  produced  no  less  than  some  hundred 
native  bom  composers,  conductors,  performers  and  pedagogues  who  are  worthy 
of  unstinted  praise  and  enduring  recognition.  It  is,  however,  an  extremely  diffi- 
cult matter  to  single  out  those  who  may  be  looked  upon  as  America's  represen- 
tative writers  for  the  orchestra.  At  the  present  moment  one  might  suggest  the 
names  of  six  men  who  have  been  exceptionally  fortunate  in  being  granted  the 
opportunity  of  showing  the  world  what  they  can  do.  These  fortunate  ones  are 
Paine,  Buck,  Foote,  Chadwick,  MacDowell,  Parker,  of  whom  no  less  than  four 
are  claimed  by  New  England.  The  word  "fortunate"  is  used  advisedly,  for 
without  detracting  in  the  least  from  the  hard-earned  and  well-merited  laurels  of 
these  conspicuously  successful  composers,  many  another  American  could  be 
pointed  to  who  even  now  is  worthy  of  being  classed  in  the  first  rank  and  who 
would  undoubtedly  rise  to  epoch-making  greatness  were  the  opportunity  but 
granted  him.  Selecting  a  few  names  merely  at  random,  the  present  writer  has 
had  occasion  to  peruse  the  orchestral  pages  of  such  men  as  Father  Bonvin  (a 
Jesuit  priest  of  Canesius  College,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.)  and  Professor  Leo  R.  Lewis  of 
Tufts  College,  —  the  breadth  and  power  of  whose  scoring  would  command  wide- 
spread admiration  were  the  authors  natives  and  residents  of  Continental  Europe. 
Further  proof  of  native  independence  and  strength  is  revealed  in  the  deplorably 
rare  opportunities  of  listening  to  the  orchestral  works  of  our  younger  aspirants 
such  as  F.  Converse,  H.  H.  Huss,  H.  K.  Hadley,  Rubin  Goldmark,  not  to  mention 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA  163 

the  scholarly  productions  of  the  older  and  reputed  leaders  of  the  country  such  as 
Gilchrist,  F.  G.  Gleason,  Foerster,  Beck,  E.  S.  Kelley,  Schoenefeld,  Zeck. 

No  country  in  the  world  makes  such  unreasonable  demands  upon  the  range 
of  professional  capacity  as  does  America  when  begrudgingly  bestowing  her 
patronage  upon  her  musicians.  To  be  an  "all-round"  musician  one  is  supposed 
to  be  a  proficient  organ  and  pianoforte  player,  a  vocal  teacher,  a  trainer  of  boy 
choirs,  of  solo  quartets,  of  denominational  church  choir  singing,  and  a  choral  as 
well  as  an  orchestral  conductor;  one  is  supposed  to  be  familiar  with  all  matters 
pertaining  to  church  services,  to  have  some  knowledge  of  orchestral  stringed  instru- 
ments, to  be  versed  in  subtleties  theoretical  and  pedagogical,  to  have  business 
executive  ability,  and  to  be  —  incidentally  —  a  composer!  It  is  therefore  not 
easy  to  classify  our  contemporary  musicians  into  distinctive  branches  of  activity. 
John  Knowles  Paine,  for  example,  is  first  and  foremost  the  pioneer  of  America's 
great  composers.  On  the  other  hand,  were  he  to  be  deprived  of  this  tribute,  there 
would  still  remain  divers  possible  classifications  under  the  headings  of  organist, 
of  pioneer  educator,  of  theorist,  lecturer,  and  teacher.  Consequently,  the  follow- 
ing group  must,  like  that  of  the  French  composers  in  Chapter  XII,  be  accepted 
with  considerable  reserve;  for,  as  in  that  chapter,  the  difi'erent  composers  are  but 
arbitrarily  classified  under  the  particular  branch  in  which  they  would  appear  to 
have  excelled.  It  is  also  to  be  understood  that  where  no  statement  to  the  contrary 
is  made,  the  composer  imder  discussion  is  a  native  bom  American. 


XII. 

(i)  Pioneers  and  Promoters.  Prominent  among  our  indefatigable  workers 
of  the  nineteenth  century  bom  prior  to  1850  are:  Lowell  Mason,  Bristow, 
Dr.  WiUiam  Mason,  Gottschalk,  C.  C.  Converse,  Dr.  L.  Damrosch,  Paine,  B.  J. 
Lang,  Emery. 

Lowell  Mason  (1792-1872)  was  for  many  years  the  president  of  the  Handel 
and  Haydn  Society  of  Boston,  where  he  founded  an  academy  of  music,  and  dis- 
played untiring  activity  in  initiating  conferences  of  music  teachers  and  in  the 
cause  of  American  musical  art  in  general.  Bristow  (1825)  deserves  mention  not 
only  for  his  activity  as  a  pianist,  teacher,  and  conductor,  but  also  for  his  ambitions 
as  a  composer  in  large  forms.  These  works  include  two  symphonies,  two  oratorios 
"Daniel"  and  "St.  John,"  and  an  opera  "Rip  van  Winkle."  Dr.  William  Mason 
(1829)  proved  himself  worthy  of  the  heritage  entmsted  to  him  by  his  father,  Lowell 
Mason,  and  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  the  evolution  of  American 
music.  His  compositions,  though  clever,  are  conservative  and  somewhat  pedan- 
tic, but  his  influence  as  an  educator  cannot  be  overestimated.     Gottschalk  (1829) 


l64  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

devoted  his  exceptional  talents  as  a  concert  pianist  largely  to  the  dissemination 
of  his  own  salon  music,  which  is  brilliant  though  sentimental,  being,  moreover, 
unquestionably  dominated  by  Spanish  characteristics.  Converse  (1832)  is  recog- 
nized as  a  typical  American  and  has  won  esteem  as  the  author  of  a  large  number 
of  hymn-tunes.  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch  (1832)  was  among  the  earlier  Germans 
who  adopted  the  United  States  as  their  home.  He  left  his  indelible  impress  upon 
the  artistic  life  of  New  York  City  and  bequeathed  the  fruits  of  his  labors  to  his 
sons,  Walter  and  Frank,  who  have  piously  preserved  and  extended  them.  Paine 
and  B.  J.  Lang  are  mentioned  in  this  connection  by  virtue  of  their  indomitable 
perseverance  in  behalf  of  improved  musical  conditions  in  the  earlier  period  of 
their  respective  careers  when  the  general  attitude  of  the  American  public  toward 
true  musical  art  was  even  worse  than  it  is  at  present.  Emery  (1841)  owed  his 
reputation  originally  to  his  talents  as  a  pianist,  but  his  primer  of  harmony  has 
since  made  his  name  a  familiar  one  in  almost  every  household. 

This  list  may  rightfully  include  the  name  of  a  more  recent  benefactor  of  native 
composition  —  the  pianist,  Sherwood  (1854),  who  was  one  of  the  first  to  insist 
that  the  American  public  should  become  acquainted  with  the  slighted  creative 
talents  of  her  artistic  sons.  He  put  this  noble  resolve  to  practical  test  by  devoting 
large  portions  of  his  programs  to  the  compositions  of  his  compatriots,  and  was 
able  to  command  the  attention  and  respect  of  his  audiences  not  alone  by  his  sterhng 
technique  and  refined  interpretation  but  by  his  charming  personality  as  well. 

Many  other  names  such  as  Carl  Zerrahn  and  Theodore  Thomas  could  be 
added  here.  They  have,  however,  been  classified  under  their  more  pronounced 
specialities. 

(2)    Master  of  Orchestration. 

Paine  (1839).  As  Hughes  fitly  expresses  it,  Paine  is  the  venerable  dean  of 
America's  truly  great  composers.  Dr.  Riemann  also  is  not  far  wrong  when  he 
declares  that  Paine's  earlier  works  breathe  a  classical,  the  latter  ones  a  romantic 
spirit.  This  unwearying  composer  is  at  his  best  in  large  forms  —  indeed,  his 
supreme  devotion  to  large  undertakings  has  left  him  little  time  for  smaller  works. 
His  artistic  career  displays  a  steady  growth  not  unlike  that  of  Wagner  or  Verdi. 
Grounded  in  the  conservative  principles  of  sound  Germanic  classicism,  as  revealed 
in  his  powerful  and  dramatic  oratorio  "  St.  Peter,"  he  has  pressed  onward  through 
various  stages  of  legitimate  program  music,  represented  by  such  works  as  the 
"Spring  Symphony,"  the  symphonic  poem  "The  Tempest,"  the  overture  to  "As 
You  Like  It,"  the  setting  of  Keat's  "Reahn  of  Fancy,"  Milton's  "Nativity," 
and,  most  important  of  all,  the  "Oedipus  Tyrannos  of  Sophokles."  Having 
reached  the  height  of  his  power  in  these  lines,  Paine  advanced  yet  further  and 
concentrated  his  energies  upon  not  only  the  music  but  the  libretto  as  weU  of  a 
dramatic  conception  that  should  head  the  list  of  a  genuine  American  school  of 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA  165 

opera.  The  recent  completion  of  "Azara,"  with  its  dramatic  continuity,  irresist- 
ible climaxes,  dignity  and  beauty  of  musical  contents,  consistent  and  effective 
orchestration,  is  of  epoch-making  significance.  The  exasperating  obstacles  placed 
in  the  way  of  its  performance  both  here  and  abroad  are,  alas,  too  well  known  to 
require  additional  comment.  Until  a  production  of  this  work  shall  have  been  an 
accomplished  fact,  our  country  justly  merits  the  existing  condemnation  of  foreign 
musicians  who  declare  that  America  has  not  the  slightest  conception  of  her  duties 
either  to  her  artistic  development  or  to  her  native  composers  who  have  sacrificed 
the  best  years  of  their  lives  in  the  hope  of  stimulating  that  development.  Not 
without  justice  do  the  Germans  declare  that  the  American  public  at  large  possess 
no  artistic  instincts  whatever,  since  they  force  their  native  composers  to  turn  to 
foreign  lands  for  encouragement.  ^^^ 

Buck  (1839)  is  conspicuously  identified  with  the  evolution  of  American 
church  music.  As  a  composer  he  is  at  his  best  in  religious  composition  in  smaller 
forms.  On  the  other  hand,  his  important  contributions  to  the  branch  of  larger 
choral  works  with  orchestral  accompaniment  must  not  be  overlooked.  His  scenes 
from  Longfellow's  "Golden  Legend"  were  deemed  worthy  of  winning  one  of  the 
coveted  prizes  at  Cincinnati.  The  cantata  for  male  chorus  "Columbus"  displays 
masterly  command  in  the  deployment  of  men's  voices,  whereas  the  "Light  of 
Asia"  is  one  of  the  standard  works  of  America.  Buck  has  rather  neglected  the 
field  of  purely  orchestral  music,  but  the  scoring  of  his  choral  compositions  reveals 
the  firm  hand  of  a  master. 

FooTE  (1853).  Turning  to  a  younger  generation  who  have  sturdily  main- 
tained the  high  standard  set  before  them,  one  naturally  recalls  the  name  of  one 
who  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  the  most  satisfactory  exponent  of  the  efficiency 
of  two  American  teachers,  Paine  and  Lang,  the  most  significant  representative  of 
an  exceptional  class  of  musician  —  the  native  trained  composer,  Arthur  Foote. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  Foote  is  possessed  of  unusual  powers  in  writing  for 
men's  voices.  Widely  known  is  his  "Skeleton  in  Armor"  with  its  forceful  utter- 
ance, as  well  as  his  poetic  setting  of  "The  Farewell  of  Hiawatha."  Again,  in  the 
field  of  song  lyrics  he  has  endeared  himself  to  the  worthy  army  of  singers  by  virtue 
of  a  notable  series  of  exceptional  and  widely  contrasted  productions.  His  true 
strength  would,  however,  appear  to  reveal  itself  in  the  noblest  vehicles  of  musical 
thought  —  the  quartet  and  the  orchestra.  Foote  does  not  aim  to  produce  sensa- 
tional effects,  in  fact  his  orchestral  canvass  has,  on  the  whole,  a  grayish  hue.  The 
seriousness  of  his  purpose,  the  serenity  of  his  ideals,  and  the  unmistakable  impress 
of  a  cultured  University  training  are  faithfully  reproduced  in  the  nobility,  the 

(*)  John  Knowles  Paine  died  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  on  April  25,  1906.  He  did  not  live 
to  hear  a  complete  performance  of  his  opera,  although  after  his  death  a  concert  rendition  of  most  d. 
the  music  was  given  as  a  memorial  in  Boston  under  the  direction  of  B.  J.  Lang. 


1 66         -    THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

breadth,  and  the  sober  though  appropriate  coloring  of  his  artistic  conceptions. 
The  present  writer  is  incHned  to  regard  him  as  the  Brahms  of  this  country. 

Chadwick  (1854).  In  contrast  to  Foote's  domes.tic  education,  Chadwick 
stands  among  the  first  of  that  memorable  list  of  students  who  served  a  rigorous 
apprenticeship  under  Rheinberger  in  Munich,  and  thereby  helped  to  perpetuate 
his  name  in  America.  A  mighty  throng  followed  in  Chadwick's  footsteps,  among 
whom  were  the  composers  Parker,  Huss,  Bullard,  Atherton;  the  educators  Lewis 
and  Spalding;  the  organists  and  teachers  John  White,  Rowland,  and  Bertram 
Henry.  Not  only  did  Chadwick  with  one  stroke  make  his  individuality  felt  upon 
returning  to  his  native  land,  —  an  individuality  that  has  since  been  strengthened 
rather  than  lessened,  —  but  ,  his  appointment  to  the  directorship  of  the  New 
England  Conservatory  of  Music  was  a  choice  so  opportune  that  that  institution 
has  since  been  raised  to  a  standard  of  excellence  it  never  before  had  enjoyed,  and 
is  becoming  one  of  the  recognized  arbiters  in  the  musical  affairs  of  the  country. 
Like  Foote,  Chadwick  has  tried  his  hand  in  divers  fields  of  composition,  being 
particularly  successful  in  writing  part-songs  as  well  as  songs  with  pianoforte 
accompaniment.  Large  choral  works  have,  however,  also  claimed  his  attention, 
and  are  represented  by  his  cantata  "The  Pilgrims,"  and  again  by  "The  Viking's 
Last  Voyage"  for  barytone  solo,  male  chorus  and  orchestra.  It  appears  to  be  the 
fortune  of  American  composers  to  become  known  primarily  by  their  vocal  com- 
positions. This  is  also  true  of  Chadwick.  Nevertheless,  he  has  given  expression 
to  his  loftiest  inspiration  in  a  series  of  chamber  and  orchestral  pieces  that  stamp 
him  as  a  keen  judge  of  those  essentials  required  for  large  instrumental  works.  His 
form,  though  conservative,  is  well  rounded.  His  orchestration  is  chaste  and 
refined  rather  than  sensational  and  glowing.  His  music  is  above  all  manly  and 
energetic.  Personally,  Chadwick  may  not  regard  his  operetta  "Tabasco"  with 
all  too  favorable  eyes;  yet  the  step  taken  was  assuredly  in  the  right  direction.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  our  contemporary  American  composers  seem  imable  to  take 
a  firm  stand  in  imperceptibly  educating  the  public  with  a  light  yet  artistic  genre  of 
music  such  as  characterizes  Chadwick's  "Tabasco"  or  the  earlier  operettas  of 
Victor  Herbert  and  de  Koven. 

MacDowell  (1861).  In  venturing  the  assertion  that  MacDowell  stands 
apart  on  his  exalted  pinnacle  of  fame,  there  is  not  the  slightest  danger  of  incurring 
disparaging  comparisons  between  him  and  his  eminent  contemporaries  who  have 
been  classified  under  this  heading.  Paine's  monumental  achievements  are  unassail- 
able. Buck  occupies  an  honorable  position  as  one  of  the  foremost  of  our  writers 
of  church  music.  Foote  and  Chadwick  have  each  of  them  established  their 
respective  individuality  as  composers  of  exceptional  ability.  Parker  holds  undis- 
puted sway  in  his  particular  domain.  What  separates  MacDowell  from  his 
colleagues  is  the  difference  between  his  perspective  and  theirs.     His  conceptions 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA  167 

betray  certain  tendencies  that  are  foreign  to  their  Anglo-Saxon  ruggedness  with 
its  Teutonic  substructure.  MacDowell's  Scotch  ancestry,  his  intimacy  with  Raff, 
his  contact  with  the  artistic  hfe  of  Paris,  —  all  these  circumstances  helped  to  mould 
his  exceptional  genius  into  a  form  distinctly  original  and  unique.  It  is  natural  that 
the  influence  of  his  teacher,  Raff,  should  predominate.  But  whereas  Raff's  pro- 
grarmnatic  expositions  deal  in  the  romance  of  enchantment,  of  the  supernatural, 
of  the  fantastic,  MacDowell  pins  his  faith  to  the  romance  of  poetic  imagination 
symbolic  of  emotional  realities.  Lawrence  Oilman,  in  a  persuasive  essay  on 
MacDowell,  eulogizes,  together  with  other  works,  his  symphonic  poems  "Hamlet 
and  Ophelia,"  "Lancelot  and  Elaine,"  "The  Saracens"  and  "Lovely  Alda"  as 
"the  works  of  a  master  of  imaginative  expression,  a  penetrative  psychologist, 
above  all,  an  exquisite  poet."  The  same  writer  further  remarks  that  "  MacDowell 
has  chosen  occasionally  to  employ,  in  the  realization  of  his  purposes,  what  seems 
at  first  to  be  precisely  the  magical  apparatus  so  necessary  to  the  older  romanticism. 
Dryads  and  elves  inhabit  his  world,  and  he  dwells  at  times  under  faery  boughs  and 
in  enchanted  woods;  but  for  him,  as  for  the  poets  of  the  Celtic  tradition,  these 
things  are  but  the  manifest  images  of  an  interior  passion  and  delight.  Seen  in  the 
transfiguring  mirror  of  his  music,  the  moods  and  events  of  the  natural  world  and 
of  the  incessant  drama  of  psychic  life  are  vivified  into  shapes  and  designs  of 
irresistible  beauty  and  appeal.  Both  in  theory  and  in  practice,  MacDowell  stands 
uncompromisingly  for  music  that  is,  of  intention,  persistently  pictorial  and  impres- 
sionistic. ...  It  is  as  much  in  his  choice  of  subjects  as  in  the  peculiar  vividness 
and  felicity  of  his  expression,  that  he  is  unique  among  tone-poets  of  the  external 
world."  The  above  citations  present  a  faithful  picture  of  MacDowell's  philo- 
sophical reasonings.  His  chord  formation,  harmonic  progressions,  thematic 
treatment  and  structural  form  are  all  in  accord  with  the  psychological  subtleties 
to  be  expressed. 

It  is  particularly  in  orchestration  that  MacDowell  discloses  certain  French 
characteristics.  Many  of  his  pages  might  have  been  written  by  Saint-Saens  him- 
self, but  the  "solid"  foundation  inoculated  by  the  exacting  requirements  of  his 
German  training  is  never  entirely  absent.  As  a  result,  MacDowell's  scoring 
frequently  surpasses  even  that  of  his  illustrious  French  contemporar}'.  MacDowell 
proves  no  exception  to  the  rule  in  that  his  popularity  is  due  not  so  much  to  his 
more  significant  orchestral  works  as  to  his  smaller  offerings  such  as  his  attractive 
and  highly  ingenious  pieces  for  the  pianoforte.  He  has  still  many  years  before 
him,  and  gives  promise  of  ever  increasing  power  and  versatility.  America  may 
well  be  proud  of  him!  ^^^ 

Parker    (1863).     ^^  several    respects   Parker's   orchestral   and    choral  style 

(*•)  The  entire  country  mourns  the  premature  death  of  Edward  Alexander  MacDowell,  which 
occurred  in  New  York  on  January'  23,  1908. 


1 68  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

bears  some  afl&nity  to  that  of  both  Foote  and  Chadwick.  His  subject-matter,  like 
theirs,  is  serious  —  at  times  even  severe;  his  formal  structures  are  conservative;  his 
command  of  vocal  forces  is  supreme.  Again,  his  orchestral  colors,  like  theirs,  are 
accused  of  being  cold  and  gray,  —  devoid  of  scintillating  tints  and  glowing  hues. 
This  may  be  true  to  a  certain  extent.  But  when  one  considers  the  genre  of  choral 
composition  to  which  these  three  composers  are  addicted,  it  will  be  readily  seen 
that  a  radical  readjustment  of  their  orchestral  pages  in  favor  of  warmer  coloring 
would  be  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of  their  oratorical  settings.  Among  the 
most  conspicuous  of  Parker's  productions  are  the  overtures  "Regulus"  and 
"Count  Robert  of  Paris,"  the  ballad  for  chorus  and  orchestra  "King  Trojan," 
and,  of  course,  his  masterpiece  "Hora  Novissima."  Parker  shares  with  Mac- 
Dowell  the  good  fortune  of  having  already  won  enduring  recognition  in  foreign 
lands,  —  Parker  in  England,  MacDowell  in  France,  Germany  and  Russia.  Yale 
University  was  one  of  the  first  institutions  of  this  country  to  follow  Harvard's  lead 
in  establishing  a  chair  of  music,  and  showed  sound  judgment  in  selecting  so 
eminent  a  composer  as  Parker  to  occupy  that  chair. 


As  already  intimated,  the  country  is  further  represented  by  a  dignified  array 
of  American  bom  composers  for  the  orchestra,  who  are  working  against  fearful 
odds  in  behalf  of  improved  conditions  for  native  art.  Gilchrist  (1846)  was,  like 
Arthur  Foote,  trained  in  this  country,  and  is  identified  with  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia. His  forte  is  choral  and  religious  music,  being,  moreover,  a  remarkably 
successful  prize  winner.  His  symphonic  attempts  show  sound  scholarship,  but 
are  conservative  and  non-programmatic.  The  name  of  F.  G.  Gleason  (1848)  is 
highly  respected  in  Chicago.  His  works  display  harmonic  rather  than  melodic 
strength,  and  were  frequently  performed  by  Theodore  Thomas.  In  Pittsburgh, 
Adolph  Foerster  (1854)  has  done  fine  work  in  both  large  and  small  forms.  Of 
unusual  interest  are  the  scores  of  J.  H.  Beck  (1856)  in  consequence  of  their  novel 
effects  and  warm  coloring.  His  early  success  in  Germany  justified  the  hope  that 
he  would  become  widely  known,  but  he  seems  to  have  so  far  intentionally  avoided 
the  publishers.  Arthur  Bird  (1856)  cannot  be  blamed  for  preferring  to  live  in 
the  midst  of  the  generous  artistic  encouragement  of  a  European  city.  Of  especial 
merit  are  his  symphony  in  A  and  the  ballet  "Riibezahl."  The  representative 
composer  of  San  Francisco  is  Edgar  S.  Kelley  (1857).  He  was  a  pupil  of  Clarence 
Eddy,  but  studied  also  in  Stuttgart.  He  is  essentially  a  programmatic  writer, 
possesses  considerable  originality  and  humor,  orchestrates  with  skill  and  daring, 
and  has  been  especially  successful  with  his  melodramatic  music  to  "Macbeth." 
Henry  Schoenefeld  (1857)  was  a  pupil  of  both  Reinecke  and  Lassen,  and  was  iden- 
tified with  Chicago.    His  undertakings  are  worthy  of  consideration  in  consequence 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA  169 

of  his  adaptation  and  idealization  of  negro  melodies  in  his  Suite  for  string-orchestra, 
op.  15,  before  Dvorak's  experiments  of  similar  nature.  Schoenefeld  has  since 
written  an  overture  entitled  "In  the  Sunny  South."  San  Francisco  can  boast  of 
yet  another  orchestral  composer  of  repute  —  Frederick  Zeck  jr.,  who  has  written, 
among  other  things,  several  symphonies,  a  s)anphonic  poem,  and  even  a  romantic 
opera. 

Frank  van  der  Stucken  (1858)  cuts  a  large  figure  in  the  evolution  of  American 
music.  He  is  frequently  though  erroneously  regarded  as  a  German,  but  he  was 
bom  in  Texas,  and  studied  not  only  in  Leipzig  but  under  Benoit  in  Antwerp  as 
welL  He  first  rose  to  prominence  as  director  of  the  Arion  Male  Chorus  Society 
of  New  York.  In  1885  he  instituted  a  series  of  "Novelty  Concerts"  that  opened 
up  new  possibilities  to  America's  neglected  composers.  Since  imdertaking  the 
directorship  of  the  Cincinnati  Symphony  Orchestra  in  1895,  van  der  Stucken  has 
made  himself  a  national  benefactor  by  encouraging  and  repeatedly  performing 
American  productions.  He  is  himself  a  composer  of  no  mean  ability,  possesses 
decidedly  modem  tendencies,  and  orchestrates  with  unerring  certainty.  His  com- 
positions cover  a  wide  field  and  include  an  opera  "  Vlasda,"  a  symphonic  pro- 
logue "  WilUam  Ratcliff,"  and  a  Suite  on  Shakespeare's  "Tempest." 

Walter  Damrosch  (1862)  has  acquired  the  right  to  be  ranked  with  America's 
orchestral  composers  on  account  of  his  grand  opera  "The  Scarlet  Letter,"  and 
Reginald  de  Koven  (1859)  knows  how  to  enhance  the  scores  of  his  comic  operas 
with  a  lightness  of  touch  and  some  clever  devices.  "Robin  Hood"  and  "The 
Fencingmaster"  are  sprightly  and  refined  even  though  guilty  of  occasional 
plagiarism. 

Mrs.  Beach  is  rightfully  looked  upon  as  an  eminent  leader  among  the  women 
composers  of  America  and  is  fully  entitled  to  equal  rank  with  her  fair  contem- 
poraries in  France,  C^cile  Chaminade  and  Augusta  Holmes.  Her  "  Gaelic  Sym- 
phony" has  been  performed  not  only  by  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra  and  by 
Theodore  Thomas,  but  has  been  granted  numerous  performances  by  other  repre- 
sentative organizations  as  well.  Mrs.  Beach's  scores  are  exceedmgly  elaborate  — 
possibly  too  much  so.  Nevertheless,  her  command  of  orchestral  resources  is 
remarkable,  and  in  her  Mass  in  E  flat,  op.  5,  she  has  obtained  impressive  effects, 
rich  colors  and  dramatic  climaxes. 

The  scores  of  Bonvin  and  Lewis  have  already  been  referred  to.  The  former 
evolves  his  conceptions  by  means  of  the  most  intricate  polyphony  and  with  an 
opulence  of  orchestral  effects.  Lewis  has  branched  out  into  lines  distinctly  his 
own.  A  Brahms  background  of  grayish  orchestration  is  in  evidence,  but  his 
rhythm  is  absolutely  unfettered,  his  harmonies  are  bold,  and  his  mastery  of  the- 
matic treatment  is  unusual. 

Of  the  younger  composers  bom  after  i860,  much  may  be  expected  from  F.  S. 


170  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Converse  of  Harvard/'^^  who  is  in  close  touch  with  the  ultra-modem  school  of 
composition  with  all  its  attending  freedom  of  form  and  emancipation  from  stereo- 
typed pattern,  for  he  has  already  excited  attention  both  in  this  country  and  in 
England/^'^  A  promising  pupil  of  Rheinberger  is  Henry  Holden  Huss,  who  is 
essentially  a  dramatic  and  lyric  composer.  The  healthy  and  above  all  optimistic 
tendencies  of  Henry  K.  Hadley's  compositions,  as  exemplified  by  his  symphony 
"Youth  and  Life,"  stand  out  in  sharp  contrast  against  the  morbidness  and 
pessimism  that  have  apparently  won  the  upper  hand  in  musical  art  during  the  last 
fifteen  years.  Rubin  Goldmark  was  bom  in  New  York  and  is  living  at  present  in 
that  city.  He  is  possessed  of  a  thoroughly  artistic  nature  and  has  inherited  much 
of  his  eminent  uncle's  originality  and  ability  to  impart  luscious  tone-colors  to  his 
orchestral  tableaux. 

Before  concluding  this  classification  of  orchestral  composers  it  is  desired  to 
remind  the  reader  of  the  vast  significance  attached  to  the  labors  of  Dvorak  and 
X.  Scharwenka  during  their  sojourn  in  the  United  States.  Again,  other  foreigners 
who  have  cast  in  their  lot  with  us,  such  as  Loeffler  ^^^^  and  Victor  Herbert,  are  now 
practically  regarded  as  loyal  American  composers.  Both  these  men  are  possessed 
of  sovereign  command  of  orchestration.  The  one  uses  his  art  for  portraying 
vivid  realism,  the  other  for  the  purpose  of  clothing  his  pleasing  conceptions  as 
evolved  in  daintier  vein. 

There  are  undoubtedly  a  number  of  important  American  composers  whose 
names  have  been  omitted  from  these  pages.  The  present  writer  desires  to  apolo- 
gize for  any  such  unintentional  omission  under  the  plea  that  it  has  not  been  his 
good  fortune  to  have  his  attention  called  either  directly  or  indirectly  to  their 
compositions  in  larger  forms. 


XIII. 

(3)  Orchestral  and  Choral  Conductors.  The  progress  of  a  country's  musical 
art  rests  largely  in  the  hands  of  its  orchestral  and  choral  conductors.  America 
has  been  exceptionally  fortunate  in  this  respect,  for  her  history  presents  an  army 
of  luminaries  who  are  unexcelled  the  world  over.  The  concert  and  operatic 
stage  of  New  York  owes  its  very  existence  to  such  indefatigable  workers  as 
Carl    Bergmann  (1821),  Dr.  Leopold    Damrosch    (1832),    Theodore    Thomas 

C)  See  footnote,  page  173. 

C*)  "The  Pipe  of  Desire,"  a  romantic  grand  opera  in  one  act  by  F.  S.  Converse,  was  twice  perfonned 
in  Boston  early  in  1906,  and  reveals  significant  command  of  the  modern  technics  of  orchestration. 

(^)  The  recently  performed  "Pagan  Poem"  (op.  14)  of  Charles  Martin  Loeffler  (1861)  would 
indicate  that  a  list  of  the  world's  representative  masters  of  modem  orchestration  made  up  five  years 
from  now  would  include  his  name. 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA  171 

(1835),  Anton  Seidl  (1850),  all  four  of  whom  were  Germans.  And  at  the 
present  day,  there  are  a  number  of  eminent  conductors  in  New  York. 

To  Theodore  Thomas  more  than  to  anyone  else  is  due  the  present  high  stand- 
ard of  musical  taste  in  America.  At  the  head  of  an  excellent  virtuoso  orchestra, 
he  traversed  the  country  in  his  earlier  years,  and  revealed  for  the  first  time  the 
value  and  meaning  of  the  thoughts  of  the  great  masters,  while  toward  Wagner, 
Tschaikowsky,  Dvorak,  etc.,  he  performed  the  same  mission.  These  were  the 
days  when  the  New  York  Philharmonic  Society  and  the  Harvard  Musical  Asso- 
ciation in  Boston  were  the  only  permanent  institutions  devoted  to  orchestral  music. 
Theodore  Thomas  not  only  established  a  new  standard  of  interpretation  in  this 
country,  but  so  catholic  was  his  taste  and  so  far  reaching  his  purpose  that  the  debt 
to  him  can  never  be  paid.  During  his  entire  career,  his  attitude  toward  the  Ameri- 
can composer  was  that  of  a  helpful  ally  and  friend.  It  was  as  conductor  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society  of  New  York  for  a  term  of  years  and  particularly  as  con- 
ductor of  the  Cincinnati  May  Music  Festivals  and  of  the  Chicago  Orchestra  that 
Thomas'  maturer  and  later  years  were  passed;  and  it  is  especially  in  these  cities 
that  his  memory  and  influence  will  remain  ineradicable. 

In  Boston  prior  to  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  symphony  orchestra  in 
1881,  Lowell  Mason's  initiative  was  zealously  fostered  by  the  two  foreigners,  Carl 
Zerrahn  (1826),  Bemhard  Listemann  (1839),  and  by  B.  J.  Lang  (1839),  together 
with  other  tireless  enthusiasts.  The  Boston  Sjnnphony  Orchestra  has  since 
attracted  the  best  the  world  can  afiford  —  Henschel,  Gericke,  Nikisch,  Paur.^"^ 
Inland,  public-spirited  citizens  have  made  it  possible  to  establish  local  symphony 
orchestras  and  have  almost  invariably  been  exceedingly  fortunate  in  their  choice 
of  conductors.  Theodore  Thomas  migrated  to  Chicago.  Franz  van  der  Stucken 
was  called  to  Cincinnati,  Frederic  Archer,  Victor  Herbert,  Emil  Paur  to  Pitts- 
burgh, Fritz  Scheel  to  Philadelphia.  Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  services  to  the 
education  of  the  country  has  been  rendered  by  that  vast  brotherhood  of  German 
Singing  Societies  which  flourish  from  shore  to  shore.  The  high  standard  of  their 
performances  has  been  constantly  sustained  by  men  of  splendid  attainments  such 
as,  for  instance,  van  der  Stucken  while  in  New  York,  John  Lund  while  in  Buffalo, 
Franz  Bellinger  in  Indianapolis.  In  recent  years  American  Choral  Societies  have 
forged  to  the  front.  Chicago  owes  much  to  Tomlins.  Frank  Damrosch  and  his 
colleagues  are  doing  good  work  in  New  York;  MoUenhauer,  J.  Wallace  Goodrich 
and  others  in  Boston.  Similar  conditions  prevail  in  almost  every  large  city  in  the 
Union.  Neither  may  the  beneficent  influence  of  our  military  bandmasters  upon 
the  masses  be  overlooked.  Considering  the  conditions  that  have  existed  in  the 
pcist,  no  one  can  censure  them  for  catering  to  the  demands  of  the  public.     Never- 

(**)  Dr.  Karl  Muck  was  its  conductor  for  the  season  of  1906-1907,  and  continues  in  the  position  for 
1907-1908. 


172  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

theless,  they  have  little  by  little  managed  to  interpolate  numerous  transcriptions 
from  works  of  recognized  merit.  Such  men  as  Gilmore,  Sousa  and  Innes  have 
done  more  for  the  cause  of  good  music  than  is  popularly  supposed. 

(4)  Songs  and  Smaller  Forms.  One  of  the  most  favorable  opportunities 
open  to  modem  composers  in  their  struggle  for  recognition  is  found  in  the 
field  of  songs  and  salon  music.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  America.  Con- 
sequently, all  of  our  representatives  produce  such  offerings,  and  that  with  success. 
A  few  composers,  however,  have  made  a  special  study  of  song  writing  and  piano- 
forte pieces  in  lighter  genre.  Conspicuous  among  these  are  G.  Templeton  Strong, 
J.  H.  Rogers,  Clayton  Johns,  Neidlinger,  Ethelbert  Nevin,  Margaret  Ruthven 
Lang,  Fred  Field  Bullard,  and  Percy  L.  Atherton.  Especial  mention  is  due  to 
Clayton  Johns  for  the  charming  lyric  quality  of  his  songs;  to  Nevin  for  the  fasci- 
nation of  his  lighter  pianoforte  pieces,  that  nevertheless  avoid  triviality;  to  Miss 
Lang  for  the  fairylike  daintiness  of  many  of  her  conceptions;  to  Bullard,  whose 
promising  career  was  prematurely  cut  off  at  the  very  moment  when  the  rugged 
simplicity  of  his  inspiring  songs  and  choruses  had  won  the  hearts  of  his  country- 
men; to  Atherton,  who  is,  perhaps,  the  most  talented  of  contemporary  song  writers 
in  the  realm  of  subtle  psychological  reasoning. 

(5)  Organists  and  Church  Composers.  It  may  be  boldly  asserted  that 
America  concedes  the  palm  to  none  in  the  art  of  organ  playing.  Such  is  the 
skill  in  registration  demanded  in  these  days  that  that  art  is  practically  assuming 
the  dignity  of  orchestration.  This  demand  has  been  largely  brought  about  by 
the  need  of  finding  an  adequate  substitute  for  concert  orchestras.  As  a  result, 
not  only  the  large  cities  but  almost  every  town  in  the  Union  possesses  one  or  more 
modem  organs  presided  over  by  executants  of  marked  ability.  In  most  cases 
these  men  devote  themselves  to  church  composition  as  well.  Almost  all  the  com- 
posers whose  careers  we  have  just  been  reviewing  count  church  playing  and  church 
composition  among  their  accomplishments.  The  only  notable  exception  is  Alac- 
Dowell,  who  is,  instead,  a  virtuoso  pianoforte  player.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
examine  into  the  work  of  our  many  excellent  church  organists  and  composers.  One 
is  confronted  by  notable  names  wherever  one  turns.  In  Boston,  Warren  A.  Locke 
has  for  many  years  held  undisputed  authority  in  matters  pertaining  to  church  serv- 
ices and  boy  choirs.  Whitney  and  Whiting  have  done  similar  good  work.  Of 
the  younger  men,  J.  Wallace  Goodrich  displays  an  astounding  technique,  unex- 
celled either  in  this  country  or  in  France.  The  high  standard  of  Episcopal  church 
music  in  New  York  is  due  to  such  men  as  Samuel  P.  Warren,  Richard  H.  Warren, 
Stubbs,  Hall,  etc.  Among  the  prominent  soloists  are  Eddy,  Archer,*  and  Gerrit 
Smith.  Shelley  (1858)  is  widely  known  for  his  church  compositions.  He  has 
also  written  large  works  such  as  the  oratorio  "  The  Inheritance  Divine,"  but  owes 
his  popularity  primarily  to  pleasing  though  rather  conventional  songs.     Another 

*  Frederic  Archer  died  since  the  above  lines  were  written. 


ENGLAND    AND    AMERICA 


173 


prominent  church  composer  is  Jules  Jordan  of  Providence,  whose  interest  is  cen- 
tered chiefly  in  oratorio.  N.  H,  Allen,  Marston,  Hanscom  and  Coombs  should 
also  be  mentioned  imder  this  heading. 

(6)  Teachers  and  Theorists.  Teachers  and  theorists  have  found  a  fertile 
field  in  the  United  States,  and  in  scientific  educational  matters  the  native 
American  easily  takes  the  lead.  Already  a  dignified  array  of  theoretical  and 
pedagogical  books  have  been  added  to  the  literature  of  music  by  such  authors  as 
A.  J.  Goodrich,  A.  R.  Parsons,  Goetschius,  Wilson  G.  Smith,  Matthews,  Chad- 
wick,  Benjamin  Cutter,  Spalding,  Norris.  American  teachers  have  won  recog- 
nition in  Europe  as  well.  Goetschius  found  occupation  in  Stuttgart;  Boise  was 
for  years  an  authority  in  Berlin. 

(7)  School  and  College.  Of  late,  increased  attention  has  been  bestowed 
upon  the  study  of  music  in  the  college  curriculum.  Harvard's  lead  is  being 
followed,  and  chairs  of  music  have  been  established  on  every  hand.  Harvard 
has  been  obliged  to  increase  its  staff  of  musical  instructors,  so  that  Paine  is 
now  assisted  by  Spalding  and  Converse.  ^^^  Excellent  work  is  being  done  by 
Parker  at  Yale,  Lewis  at  Tufts,  Gow  at  Vassar,  Macdougall  at  Wellesley,  Chadwick 
at  the  New  England  Conserv^atory,  Pratt  at  the  Hartford  Theological  Seminary. 
At  Columbia,  MacDowell  has  been  succeeded  by  Riibner,  who  is  ably  seconded 
by  McWhood.  Smith  College  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  musical  affairs,  being 
represented  until  recently  by  Blodgett,  who  was  possessed  of  a  peculiarly  magnetic 
power.  One  of  his  prominent  lieutenants,  who  is  still  in  active  service  at  Smith, 
is  the  pianoforte  teacher  and  pedagogue,  Edwin  B.  Story.  He  is  one  of  the  most 
fluent  accompanists  in  the  country.  The  enterprise  of  these  college  professors  is 
making  itself  felt  in  the  preparatory  schools  of  the  country,  whereby  the  entire 
artistic  morale  of  the  public  at  large  is  being  elevated.  Credit  is  also  due  to  the 
sound  principles  inoculated  into  the  teaching  of  music  in  the  public  schools  by  such 
men  as  Frank  Damrosch  in  New  York  or  Tomlins  in  Chicago. 


The  writer  has  intentionally  overstepped  the  bounds  of  orchestral  composition 
for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing  the  prodigious  activity  displayed  by  our  profes- 
sional brethren  on  every  hand.  Throughout  these  pages  there  runs  an  imdercurrent 
of  discontent  provoked  by  the  hstless  attitude  of  the  American  public  taken  as  a 
whole.  The  fickleness  of  their  support  seems  to  be  at  the  root  of  our  troubles. 
Everything  conceivable  is  being  done  for  this  public.  Music  in  the  schools  is 
encouraged.     The  colleges  are  alive  to  the  needs  of  the  hour.     Many  of  our  com- 

('*)  The  retirement  of  Professor  Paine  not  long  before  his  death,  and  the  recent  resignation  of  Assist- 
ant Professor  Converse  for  the  purpose  of  devoting  himself  to  composition,  leaves  the  department  of 
music  at  Harvard  in  charge  of  Assistant  Professor  Spalding. 


174  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

posers  are  sacrificing  their  inner  convictions  on  the  altar  of  patriotism  with  the 
determination  to  write  simply.  Music  lovers  and  philanthropists  are  enlisted  in 
the  cause.  A  high  musical  standard  for  religious  worship  is  maintained.  Orches- 
tral performances  can  be  listened  to  at  moderate  cost.  Such  renditions  are  as 
good  as,  frequently  better  than,  those  in  Europe.  How  is  it,  then,  that  so  many 
choral  societies  flourish  for  a  few  seasons,  only  to  eventually  die  a  lingering  death  ? 
Buffalo's  Symphony  Orchestra  is  no  more.  Other  cities  have  allowed  similar 
mortifying  conditions  to  come  to  pass. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  singer  or  the  instrumental  virtuoso  reaps  rewards  that 
are  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  tardy  recognition  and  modest  remuneration  awarded 
to  their  colleagues  —  the  composers,  conductors,  and  organists  —  who  are  almost 
invariably  possessed  of  an  artistic  education  far  superior  to  that  of  the  soloist.  A 
Rossinian  era  would  appear  to  have  reasserted  itself!  The  larger  number  of  these 
soloists  are  themselves  rarely  patriotic,  for  only  with  difficulty  can  they  be  per- 
suaded to  sing  or  perform  even  the  finest  of  American  productions.  Orchestral 
conductors  who  come  to  our  shores  from  abroad  soon  perceive  that  the  public 
does  not  support  home  talent  in  a  whole-hearted  manner,  and  adjust  their  programs 
accordingly.  With  a  few  notable  exceptions,  they  too  are  disloyal.  Again,  the 
worthy  efforts  of  our  comparatively  few  eminent  newspaper  critics  in  behalf  of 
the  American  composer  are  constantly  coimteracted  by  the  superficial  and  bom- 
bastic criticisms  of  their  lesser  brethren. 

The  American  composer  is  to-day  ready  to  enter  the  lists  against  the  entire 
world.  His  own  countrymen  are  impeding  him.  It  is  high  time  that  the  American 
public  awake  out  of  its  lethargy! 

(Summary  on  page  i8o.) 


SUMMARY  OF   PART  IH. 

Chapter  IX.    The  Romantic  School. 

The  German  composers  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  for  convenience  classified  in  three 
general  groups:  "The  Romantic  School,"  "The  Classical  Romanticists,"  "The  New  Move- 
ment." The  so-called  founders  of  the  Romantic  School,  Spohr  and  Weber,  were  followed  by 
such  representative  composers  as  Schubert,  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann.  The  evolution  of 
orchestration  was  conspicuously  advanced  by  Weber.  He  stands  at  the  head  of  modem  instru- 
mentation, for  with  him  a  new  period  began. 

Spohr  was  instrumental  in  awakening  a  keener  interest  for  the  supernatural,  and  he  aimed 
to  illustrate  certain  definite  ideas  by  means  of  musical  expression.  He  contributed  to  the  evo- 
lution of  orchestration  proper  but  little  that  was  actually  new,  but  his  devejopment  of  violin 
technique  stimulated  at  least  a  freer  and  more  elaborate  manner  of  employing  the  strings.  T&e 
equilibrium  of  his  orchestra  is  admirably  preserved  and  the  general  color-scheme  enriched  by 
frequent  use  of  soft  harmonies  for  the  brass. 

Weber's  true  greatness  lay  in  the  power  of  orchestral  portrayal  and  in  rare  appreciation 
of  instrumental  effects.  Few  composers  contributed  more  than  he  to  the  independence  of  the 
wood-wind.  He  showed  particular  predilection  for  the  clarinet  as  well  as  for  horns,  and  was 
exceedingly  modem  in  the  use  of  small  combinations.  Weber's  scoring  is  above  all  dramatic, 
and  serves  as  a  model  for  aU  later  composers. 

Schubert  displayed  rare  skill  in  the  handling  of  orchestral  instruments,  whether  in  solo 
passages  or  in  combination.  His  was  the  hand  of  a  master  who  without  hesitation  knew  what 
eflFects  he  desired  and  how  to  obtain  them.  Novel  was  his  manner  of  writing  for  trombones,  and 
the  contrast  of  solo  wood-instruments  in  dialogue. 

Mendelssohn's  contributions  to  the  details  of  instrumentation  are  both  original  and  varied."*^ 

rThe  suavity  of  his  melody,  the  purity  of  his  form,  and  the  delicacy  of  his  scoring  have   been/ 
excelled  By  none.     His  orchestration  is  buoyant,  transparent,  and  perfectly  balanced. 

Schumann  holds  the  imusual  position  of  being  one  of  the  few  great  masters  who  did  not 
excel  in  orchestration. 

Chapter  X.    The  Classical  Romanticists. 

The  representatives  of  classical  romanticism  are  Raff,  Rubinstein,  Goldmark,  Brahms, 
Bruch,  Rheinberger.  Although  all  of  these  men  displayed  rare  skill  in  the  apphcation  of  orches- 
tral resources,  none  of  them  can  take  rank  with  the  more  conspicuous  exponents  of  instrumentation. 

Raff.  Striking  insignia  of  absolutely  original  scoring  are  not  conspicuous  in  Raff's  orches- 
tration, but  its  entire  character  gives  evidence  of  fertile  imagination  and  sound  judgment. 

Rubinstein.  The  instrumentation  of  the  Russian,  Rubinstein,  is  not  of  distinctive 
significance. 

Goldmark,  on  the  other  hand,  owes  his  reputation  primarily  to  his  gifts  as  an  orchestrator. 
He  atones  for  a  certain  lack  of  musical  inspiration  by  mastery  of  material  effects  and  power  of 
vivid  portrayal. 

I7S 


176  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

Brahms  considered  glowing  orchestral  color  and  sensational  dramatic  effect  of  secondary 
importance.  In  spite  of  his  otherwise  comprehensive  and  titanic  achievements,  one  cannot  point 
to  him  as  a  model  for  invariably  felicitous  instnmientation. 

Bruch  possesses  supreme  command  of  modem  orchestral  resources,  but  is  at  his  best  in 
the  art  of  accompaniment,  which  displays  perfect  taste,  genuine  expression  and  an  abimdance 
of  energetic  force. 

Rheinberger's  orchestral  works  cannot  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  important  contributions 
to  musical  literature.  The  instrumentation  is  thoroughly  refined,  marvellously  smooth,  and 
perfectly  roimded  in  every  detail;  but  the  essential  elements  of  individuality  and  novelty  do  not 
enter  into  the  orchestral  scheme  to  any  appreciable  extent. 

Chapter  XI.    The  New  Movement, 

The  "New  Movement"  dates  from  the  innovations  simultaneously  introduced  by  Berlioz 
in  France  and  by  Liszt  and  Wagner  in  Germany. 

Berlioz  was  practically  the  first  representative  of  the  New  Movement,  but  contrary  to  the 
natural  course  of  evolution,  he  was  not  only  its  foimder  but  at  once  its  most  radical  exponent 
as  well.  The  laying  out  of  his  musical  scheme  was  inseparably  connected  with  a  series  of  events 
or  ideas.  As  the  chief  French  representative  of  romantic  musical  art,  he  combined  dramatic  and 
symphonic  effects.  His  contributions  to  the  development  of  "program"  music  and  to  modem 
science  of  orchestration  loom  up  in  gigantic  proportions.  One  of  the  primary  objects  of  his 
orchestral  conceptions  was  to  display  tone-color  in  its  own  right,  an  object  that  was  foreign  to 
the  more  aesthetic  ideals  of  the  classicists.  The  distinctive  features  of  his  orchestration  are  power 
of  musical  description;  new  combinations,  new  effects,  new  treatment;  insight  into  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  instnmaents  whereby  their  possibilities  both  individual  and  collective  are  demon- 
strated; excessive  polyphony  and  compUcated  rh}rthm.  Berlioz  must  be  accredited  with  having 
anticipated  many  effects  subsequently  elaborated  upon  by  Wagner,  as  discovered,  for  example, 
by  his  frequent  use  of  homogeneous  tone-color  in  independent  three  and  four  part  harmony. 
Berlioz  represents  the  ultra-realistic  school  of  instnunental  music  and  was  the  most  daring 
orchestral  writer  that  has  ever  lived. 

Liszt.  The  importance  attached  to  the  rich  and  heavy  orchestration  of  Liszt  consists  of 
the  bearing  it  has  upon  the  unfettered  form,  the  freedom  of  tonality  and  the  novelty  of  treatment 
that  characterize  the  New  German  School.  His  scoring  is  masterful,  highly  colored  and  ingeni- 
ous, but  contains  nothing  conspicuously  new.  He  was  led  to  modify  the  cyclic  form  of  the  syra- 
phony  which  became  transformed  into  the  S)miphonic  poem  with  its  continuity  of  music, 
monothematic  principle  and  absence  of  conventional  formulas. 

Wagner.  The  highest  ideals  of  German  opera  culminated  in  the  music  dramas  of  Wagner. 
He  aimed  to  substitute  a  noble  form  of  art  in  the  place  of  mere  pleasxire-giving  and  sensational 
fabrications.  Music,  poetic  ideas,  action  and  stage  setting  were  all  to  be  worthy  of  the  subject 
intended  for  presentation.  By  developing  the  so-called  Leit-motiv,  Wagner  discovered  a  most 
potent  factor  for  recalling  past  events,  for  emphasizing  those  present,  and  for  anticipating  those 
of  the  future.  To-day  Wagner  stands  forth  as  the  accepted  champion  of  dramatic  reforms, 
as  the  most  eminent  composer  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  as  the  greatest  master  of  orches- 
tration in  the  annals  of  the  world.  Although  at  first  susceptible  to  tone-color  as  an  end  to  itself, 
he  leamed  to  subordinate  it  to  the  demands  of  the  musical  and  poetic  ideas  of  the  immediate  dra- 
matic situation.  He  emphasized  solidity,  made  the  orchestra  firm  and  supple,  increased  its 
melodic  as  well  as  harmonic  force,  and  used  it  for  two  definite  purposes:  to  render  emotion  and 


SUMMARY    OF    PART    III 


177 


to  portray  action  and  situations.  His  orchestration  does  not  deviate  from  well-established  and 
approved  traditions,  but  the  grouping  and  treatment  of  instruments  are  entirely  new.  Every 
phase  of  his  inexhaustible  variety  in  string  writing  is  of  surpassing  beauty.  The  use  of  deep, 
sonorous  basses  never  interferes  with  harmonic  clearness  or  with  the  outline  of  melodic  and 
rhythmic  movement.  The  modem  extreme  development  of  unsupported  wood-wind  and  their 
numerical  distribution  are  entirely  due  to  Wagner.  The  most  radical  changes  are  those  affect- 
ing the  brass.  Of  incalculable  value  was  the  permanent  employment  of  valve-homs  and  valve- 
trumpets,  the  immense  development  in  horn  writing,  the  discarding  of  opheicleides,  and  the 
introduction  of  a  complete  group  of  tubas.  Much  of  Wagner's  warm  and  rich  orchestration  is 
due  to  a  substratum  of  soft  brass  harmonies  that  are  apparently  not  audible  at  all.  No  com- 
poser knew  better  than  he  how  to  obtain  the  best  effects  from  instruments  of  percussion  without 
overstepping  the  bounds  of  artistic  refinement.  Greatest  of  masters  for  the  orchestra,  Wagner 
brought  that  organization  to  its  highest  point  of  evolution. 

Further  prominent  representatives  of  the  "New  Movement"  are  Cornelius,  Bruckner, 
Lassen,  Ritter,  Draeseke,  Weingartner,  Nicode,  Richard  Strauss.  The  masterful  and  ingenious 
instrumentation  of  Cornelius  proves  him  a  worthy  follower  of  Wagner.  Bruckner's  orchestra- 
tion, though  clever,  lacks  buoyancy  and  warmth.  That  of  Lassen,  Ritter,  Draeseke  and  Wein- 
gartner contains  many  sterling  qualities,  but  has  not  advanced  the  evolution  of  orchestration  to 
any  perceptible  degree.  Nicode 's  methods  present  some  of  the  most  interesting  specimens  of 
modem  orchestration. 

Richard  Strauss.  The  greatest  cosmopoUtan  master  of  orchestration  after  Wagner  is 
Richard  Strauss.  He  has  progressed  step  by  step  through  various  stages  of  development.  Con- 
forming at  first  to  the  conservative  romanticism  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann,  he  soon  came 
to  admire  and  emulate  the  doctrines  of  Brahms,  but  eventually  leaned  more  and  more  upon 
Liszt  and  Wagner  for  the  dominating  thought  of  his  conceptions.  With  "Till  Eulenspiegel" 
and  "Also  sprach  Zarathustra"  Strauss  inaugurated  a  permanent  and  ever  advancing  method 
of  procedure  distinctly  individuaUstic  and  imprecedented  that  has  so  far  culminated  in  the  vast 
realistic  conceptions  of  "Don  Juan"  and  "Ein  Heldenleben."  His  works  embody  flowing  can- 
tilena, intricate  polyphony,  freely  used  chromatic  harmony,  daring  harmonic  combinations, 
complex  rhj'thm,  startling  contrasts,  monumental  climaxes,  clever  orchestral  devices,  and  extreme 
realism.  In  order  to  grasp  the  true  significance  of  the  contrapuntally  synthesized  harmonic 
Melos  it  is  of  utmost  importance  to  trace  the  complicated  melodic  delineations  as  independent 
factors  flowing  in  a  horizontal  direction.  His  orchestral  conceptions  are  vast  color-pictures  and 
display  a  wealth  of  melodic  utterance  in  all  the  principal  orchestral  voices,  a  prolific  number  of 
themes  and  sub-themes,  and  the  most  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  specific  characteristics  of  the 
various  instruments  as  well  as  with  orchestral  combinations  and  the  resultant  mixture  of  tonal 
tints  thereby  to  be  obtained.  Like  Berlioz,  Strauss  secures  dramatic  effects  by  means  of 
vivid  orchestration,  and  displays  an  insatiable  craving  for  the  discovery  of  novel  combinations. 
His  themes  are  arrayed  in  a  kaleidoscopic  sequence  of  instrumental  color  rather  than  being 
subjected  to  elaborate  thematic  treatment,  and  climaxes  are  reached  by  means  of  dynamic  effects 
instead  of  by  melodic  evolution.  An  elaborately  conceived  program  justifies  the  requisition  for 
vast  orchestral  resources.  There  is  further  evidence  of  genuine  inspiration,  of  a  true  gift  for 
thematic  development  forming  a  marvellous  filigree  of  contrapuntally  interwoven  leading 
motives,  of  intellectual  power,  philosophical  reflection,  poetic  revery,  and  naive  humor. 

Germany  still  leads  the  van  in  the  art  of  orchestration,  of  which  she  possesses  many  eminent 
exponents  such  as  Max  Shillings  and  Cyrill  Kistler,  —  slavish  imitators  of  extreme  Wagnerism, 


178  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

and  Humperdinck,  Thuille,  Kienzl,  Georg  Schumann,  Mahler,  —  less  extreme   in   their  views 
but  more  successful  in  their  results. 


During  the  nineteenth  century  a  small  group  of  men  were  especially  instrumental  in  trans- 
planting the  daintiness  and  refinement  of  modem  French  light  opera  into  indigenous  German 
productions.  Conspicuous  among  these  is  Lortzing,  supported  by  Nicolai,  Flotow,  Suppe  and 
Johann  Strauss  junior. 

Chapter  XII. 

(i)  France.  The  French  composers  of  the  nineteenth  century  may  for  convenience  be 
divided  into  several  distinctive  groups.  After  Berlioz,  a  number  of  representative  writers  devoted 
themselves  with  signal  success  to  the  development  of  orchestral  concert  music.  Conspicuous 
among  these  are  David,  Franck,  Lalo,  Godard,  d'Indy. 

David  possessed,  in  addition  to  the  characteristic  feature  of  clearness,  a  highly  developed 
talent  for  artistic  disposition  of  his  plans,  for  poetic  picture-painting,  and  for  rich  and  descriptive 
orchestral  color,  especially  when  portraying  Oriental  subjects.  Like  Berlioz,  he  introduced  cer- 
tain scenic  qualities  into  his  orchestration,  which  is  ever  buoyant,  supple,  and  varied. 

Cesar  Franck  differs  from  his  French  contemporaries  by  reason  of  what  might  be  termed 
the  masculine  severity  of  his  inspiration,  together  with  monimiental  mastery  of  polyphonic  design, 
exhaustless  command  of  orchestral  resources. 

Lalo.  In  antithesis  to  Franck's  severe  and  somewhat  solemn  style  of  writing,  that  of  Lalo 
betrays  a  fund  of  spontaneous  invention,  curious  rhythmic  effects,  charming  and  sprightly  instru- 
mentation, and  great  aptitude  for  imbuing  his  works  with  the  necessary  local  coloring. 

Godard.  In  France,  Godard  occupies  a  conspicuous  position  on  the  programs  of  orchestral 
concert  music.     His  musical  ideas  and  instrumentation  are  both  graceful  and  charming. 

d'Indy.  In  earnest  endeavor  and  in  faithful  adherence  to  high  ideals  d'Indy  has  proved 
himself  a  worthy  successor  to  his  teacher,  Cesar  Franck,  whom  he  copies  in  exceedingly  compli- 
cated development  of  subject-matter.  Not  content  with  incorporating  in  his  works  the  most 
advanced  tenets  of  Wagner,  he  further  has  explored  the  pathway  opened  up  by  Brahms.  He 
is  essentially  a  symphonist,  evolves  his  conceptions  on  broad  and  dignified  lines,  and  displays 
a  masterful  deplo)rment  of  orchestral  resources. 


A  little  coterie  of  Frenchmen  —  Adam,  MaUlart  and  Delibes  —  have  distinguished  them- 
selves by  almost  exclusive  devotion  to  the  lightest  of  operatic  forms.  Conspicuous  among  these 
is  Delibes  by  reason  of  his  naive  descriptive  powers  and  clever  instrumentation. 


Thomas,  Gounod,  Saint-Saens,  Bizet,  Chabrier,  Massenet  may  be  regarded  as  the  foremost 
French  composers  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the  greatest  French  orchestrator  after  Berlioz 
is  Saint-Saens. 

Thomas.  The  orchestration  of  Thomas  is  dear  in  ensemble,  ingenious  in  detail,  polished, 
refined  and  never  overloaded.  Characteristic  tone-color  and  poetically  conceived  combinations 
reveal  the  skilful  hand  of  a  competent  master. 

Gounod  stands  as  the  most  illustrious  recent  representative  of  lyric  op)era  and  exhibits  the 
unusual  attribute  of  attaining  excellent  results  without  apparent  effort.  His  scoring  follows  the 
general  path  indicated  by  Auber  and  Meyerbeer,  but  it  further  shows  that  he  possessed  a  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  German  science  of  instrumentation. 


SUMMARY    OF    PART    III  179 

Saint-Saens  is  the  greatest  living  French  composer  and  the  mightiest  of  her  orchestral 
exponents.  The  fundamentals  of  his  artistic  principles  dififer  but  slightly  from  those  of  Thomas 
and  Goimod,  and  the  outlines  of  Meyerbeer's  operatic  forms  are  alsQ  in  evidence  in  his  works. 
Nevertheless,  Saint-Saens  discloses  involuntary  leanings  toward  Wagner.  His  symphonic  p)oems, 
though  not  of  the  same  magnitude  and  significance,  are  nevertheless  clearer  and  more  compact 
than  those  of  either  Berlioz  or  Liszt.  Admirable  clearness  as  well  as  simplicity  of  treatment 
characterizes  his  chamber  music.  His  orchestration  is  elaborate,  rich  and  varied,  —  intricate, 
at  times,  without  being  obtuse.  It  invariably  reveals  the  soundest  of  judgment  in  the  deploy- 
ment of  large  or  small  orchestral  forces.  It  is  alternately  scintillating,  impassioned,  melancholy, 
heroic.  Among  other  details,  his  scoring  frequently  makes  requisition  for  triplets  of  wood  and 
brass  instnmients,  and  embodies  the  best  traits  of  all  contemporary  orchestral  writers  both  native 
and  foreign. 

Bizet  followed  the  prevalent  custom  of  building  upon  French  traditions,  enhanced  by  Ger- 
man truthfulness  of  expression  and  interpretation.  He  possessed  a  rare  talent  for  discovering 
novel  traits  of  instrumentation  together  with  variety  of  rhythm  and  tone-color. 

Chabrier's  representative  work  "  Gwendoline "  may  be  rightfully  looked  upon  as  the  most 
advanced  exposition  of  existing  Franco-German  music  dramas.  Much  of  his  orchestration 
suggests  a  progressive  yet  peculiar  phase  of  Wagnerism  enveloped  by  a  tinge  of  melancholy  and 
softened  by  the  delicate  touch  peculiar  to  the  French. 

Massenet  appears  at  his  best  as  a  dramatic  writer.  His  endowments  embrace  highly 
developed  feeling  for  sensuous  charm,  a  style  distinctly  poetic,  and  a  manner  of  orchestration  both 
rich  and  varied. 

French  art  during  this  era  has  been  further  assisted  by  the  sterling  achievements  of  many 
secondary  composers  such  as  Dubois  and  Paladhile;  by  the  orchestral  expounders:  Gevaert, 
Lavoix;  by  the  literary  champions:  Vidal,  Benoit,  Jonciferes;  by  the  organist-composers:  Guil- 
mant,  Widor;  by  the  representatives  of  the  fair  sex:  Augusta  Holmfes,  Cecile  Chaminade;  and  by 
the  most  recent  aspirants  to  fame:  Charpentier  and  Debussy. 


The  attitude  of  the  French  public  toward  orchestral  concert  music  has  undergone  a  radical 
change  in  the  last  fifty  years.  During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  Habeneck  re- 
organized and  developed  the  "Concerts  du  Conservatoire."  This  was  followed  by  the  establish- 
ment of  Pasdeloup's  "Societe  des  jeunes  artistes"  and  its  offspring,  the  "Concerts  populaires." 
The  persistent  propagation  of  both  indigenous  and  exotic  works  of  art  is  largely  due  to  Pasdeloup's 
initiative.  In  recent  years,  concert  performances  in  France  have  been  brought  to  a  high  state  of 
proficiency  through  the  untiring  efforts  of  Lamoureux  and  Colonne. 


(2)  Italy.  For  half  a  century  Italy  has  now  been  represented  by  but  one  luminary  of 
the  first  magnitude  —  Verdi.  His  earlier  scoring  is  conventional  and  commonplace.  The 
orchestration  depends  largely  upon  violent  and  frequently  illogical  contrasts.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, Verdi  acquired  increased  regard  for  judicious  and  more  independent  instrumentation,  and 
that  more  particularly  in  the  deployment  of  the  wood-wind.  An  extreme  advance  is  discovered 
in  his  Requiem  and  later  operas.  Here  the  functions  of  the  orchestra  become  more  important, 
and  the  tonal  colors  acquire  a  richer  and  warmer  hue. 

Verdi's  followers  have  done  practically  nothing  for  the  cause  of  orchestration  other  than  to 
branch  off  into  infrequented  by-ways  that  have  necessitated  corresponding  orchestral  treatment. 


l8o  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 


Chapter  XIII. 

The  universal  development  of  musical  art  during  the  nineteenth  century  is  indeed  unpre- 
cedented. Side  by  side  with  the  rise  and  growth  of  the  New  Movement  in  Germany,  side  by 
side  with  the  high  development  of  French  lyric  opera  enhanced  by  advanced  Teutonic  principles, 
side  by  side  with  the  gradual  unfolding  of  Verdi's  melodious  and  impassioned  conceptions  stands 
the  evolution  of  scientifically  applied  Folk-tunes  belonging  to  the  younger  musical  countries. 

(i)  Hungary.  It  cannot  be  said  that  Hungary  possesses  a  national  style  of  orchestra- 
tion. Although  Liszt  and  Goldmark  were  both  Hungarians  by  birth,  the  former  benefited  his 
country  not  so  much  by  developing  an  indigenous  style  of  composition  as  by  the  propagation 
of  those  musical  traits  peculiar  to  his  race.  As  to  Goldmark's  music,  it  is  that  of  a  German 
rather  than  of  a  Magyar.  More  faithful  to  native  characteristics  were  the  efforts  of  a  small  group 
of  secondary  composers.  Their  scores,  like  those  of  Liszt  and  Goldmark,  contain  plenty  of 
variety  and  color,  but  owe  their  distinctive  features  to  melodic  and  rhythmic  novelty,  —  not  to 
instrumentation.  Hungary  has,  therefore,  exerted  no  more  than  an  indirect  influence  upon  the 
art  of  orchestration. 

(2)  Bohemia.  The  development  of  orchestration  in  Bohemia  affords  a  striking  con- 
trast to  that  in  Hungary.  Smetana,  the  pioneer,  was  content  to  employ  comparatively  simple 
means,  —  indeed,  his  scores  occasionally  reveal  a  suggestion  of  Mozart's  naive  touch.  On  the 
other  hand,  his  eminent  successor,  Dvorak,  developed  the  art  to  a  point  excelled  by  none. 
The  latter  ranks  among  the  four  greatest  orchestrators  since  Wagner.  Like  Smetana,  DvoHk 
evolved  his  music  from  the  native  folk-song.  He  was  on  the  whole,  an  adherent  to  strict  forms, 
but  subjected  these  to  the  utmost  freedom  and  originality  of  treatment.  His  greatest  powers 
displayed  themselves  in  the  colossal  development  of  orchestral  resources.  His  orchestration  is 
appropriate  and  consistent,  varied,  warm  and  brilliant.  It  abounds  in  beautiful  combinations. 
It  is  rich  but  never  over-burdened.  Further  distinctive  features  include  clear  and  bright  string 
writing,  methods  of  employing  the  wood-wind  similar  to  those  of  Schubert,  and  an  occasional 
touch  of  the  supernatural  suggestive  of  Spohr  and  Weber.  In  a  word,  Dvorak  was  a  master  of 
vivacious  and  refined  orchestration. 

(3)  Scandinavia.  The  music  of  Scandinavia  is  likewise  evolved  from  native  folk -melodies. 
The  Northern  composers  are  not  particularly  dramatic  nor  have  they  developed  many  novel 
traits  of  instrumentation.  They  resemble  the  Hungarians  in  having  wielded  but  an  indirect 
influence  upon  orchestration,  this  influence  being  restricted  to  the  indigenous  properties  of 
their  melody,  rhythm  and  local  coloring.  Their  chief  representatives  are  Gade,  the  pioneer, 
and  his  illustrious  successor  —  Grieg.  The  former,  under  the  beneficial  influence  of  Mendels- 
sohn, developed  high  efliciency  in  the  art  of  orchestration.  He  appreciated  both  the  possibilities 
and  the  limitations  of  each  instrument,  and  revealed  his  nationality  by  the  application  of  sug- 
gestive tone-color.  Grieg's  instrumentation  is  not  conspicuously  influenced  by  modem  ten- 
dencies. Though  he  cannot  be  ranked  as  a  great  orchestrator,  his  writing  for  strings  alone  is 
of  surpassing  beauty,  nor  does  his  deployment  of  larger  forces  lack  novelty  and  effectiveness. 

(4)  Russia.  The  gradual  ascendency  of  Russian  music  is  one  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Here  again  the  native  folk-song  forms  the  basis  for  scientific  development. 
Russian  composers  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  —  the  old  lyric  school,  —  the  new  Russian 
school,  —  Rubinstein  and  Tschaikowsky  in  a  class  by  themselves. 


SUMMARY    OF    PART    III  i8l 

Glinka,  pioneer  of  the  old  lyric  school,  accomplished  for  his  country  what  Gade  and  Smetana 
did  for  theirs.  His  orchestration  calls  for  but  little  comment  excepting  that  it  is  clever  and  at 
times  even  brilliant. 

The  tenets  of  the  "New  Russian  Movement"  are  closely  allied  to  those  of  the  "New 
German  Movement."  Chief  representatives  of  this  class  are  borodin,  cesar  cui,  rimski- 
KORSAKOFF.  The  orchestration  of  these  men  and  their  associates  is,  on  the  whole,  but  the 
reflection  of  Tschaikowsky's  style  combined  with  the  further  progressive  methods  of  German 
and  French  orchestration. 

Rubinstein  cannot  be  compared  with  Glinka  as  an  operatic  writer  or  with  Tschaikowsky 
as  an  orchestrator.  His  instrumentation  was  hampered  by  his  antagonism  to  the  innovations 
of  the  New  German  Movement.  In  string  writing,  however,  Rubinstein  reveals  fine  apprecia- 
tion of  tone-color,  and  his  full  scoring  at  times  displays  superb  power. 

Tschaikowsky  still  reigns  supreme  as  the  greatest  interpreter  of  Slavonic  ideals.  A  remark- 
able feature  of  his  scoring  is  the  extreme  modem  effect  secured  with  comparatively  modest 
means.  He  expressed  himself  in  a  language  of  profound  pathos  which  was  in  part  due  to  the 
embodiment  of  weird  and  gloomy  orchestration.  He  made  prominent  use  of  low  wood-wind, 
which  were  constantly  combined  with  the  violas,  and  he  evinced  peculiar  predilection  for  clarinets 
in  their  low  range  and  bassoons  in  their  upper  range.  On  the  other  hand,  many  magnificent 
specimens  of  forceful  writing  are  also  in  evidence  in  his  scores. 

(5)  England.  Of  the  ten  men  chosen  as  representative  English  composers  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  six  are  prominently  identified  with  the  evolution  of  English  orchestration. 
The  pioneer  of  these  was  Macfarren,  whose  cosmopolitan  range  of  composition  is  particularly 
noteworthy.  Bennett,  a  disciple  of  Mendelssohn,  proved  himself  a  worthy  heir  to  Purcell,  and 
is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  a  new  English  School.  Most  widely  known  is  Sullivan,  who  sub- 
stantially aided  the  development  of  an  Anglican  style  of  orchestration.  Sullivan  based  his  methods 
of  instrumentation  upon  those  of  Mozart,  but  occasionally  copied  Gounod  and  even  Berlioz. 
He  displayed  sound  musicianship,  dramatic  power,  and  a  thorough  command  of  orchestral 
resources.  Mackenzie's  conceptions  are  wholly  orchestral.  His  scoring  is  powerful  and  effect- 
ive, allowing  also  commendable  freedom  to  the  wood-wind,  and  suggests  a  mixture  of  Mendels- 
sohnian  and  Wagnerian  externals.  Cowen  is  an  exponent  of  both  absolute  and  programmatic 
music.     He  shares  with  Stanford  the  rank  of  representative  English  symphonist. 

The  twentieth  century  gives  promise  of  marked  advance  in  English  composition  from  an 
emotional  and  orchestral  standpoint  as  discovered  in  the  initial  productions  of  Elgar. 

(6)  America.  America  and  Russia  are  the  two  countries  that  have  forged  to  the  front  in 
musical  art  during  the  past  quarter  century.  Until  the  shackles  of  EngHsh  conservatism  and  of 
Puritan  dogmas  were  thrown  off,  little  could  be  done  in  the  way  of  preparing  for  a  national  school 
of  composition.  But  with  the  ever  increasing  influx  of  German  musicians,  American  composers 
were  stimulated  to  extend  their  horizon,  so  that  at  the  present  day  one  can  point  to  a  host  of 
cultured  and  highly  educated  musicians  who  are  devoting  themselves  to  the  furtherance  of 
national  art.  Many  of  them  have  displayed  rare  skill  as  orchestral  writers,  but  comparatively 
few  have  as  yet  been  sufficiently  fortunate  to  acquire  wide-spread  recognition  in  this  branch. 
The  list  of  pioneer  composers  and  promoters  includes  Lowell  and  William  Mason,  Bristow, 
Gottschalk,  C.  C.  Converse,  Paine,  Lang,  and  Emery.  A  somewhat  arbitrary  selection  of  repre- 
sentative orchestrators  includes  Paine,  Buck,  Foote,  Chadwick,  MacDowell,  Parker.  The 
pioneer  of  America's  great  composers  is  Paine.    His  opera  "Azara"  may  be  regarded  as  his 


1 82  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

representative  work,  and  is  conspicuous  for  its  dramatic  continuity,  irresistible  climaxes,  dignity 
and  breadth  of  musical  contents,  consistent  and  effective  orchestration.  Buck  is  prominently 
identified  with  the  evolution  of  American  church  music.  The  orchestration  of  his  choral  com- 
positions reveals  the  firm  hand  of  a  master.  Foote  appears  to  best  advantage  when  writing  cham- 
ber and  orchestral  music.  He  does  not  aim  to  produce  sensational  effects,  yet  clothes  his  artistic 
conceptions  in  appropriate  orchestral  garment.  Chadwick's  music  is  above  all  manly  and  ener- 
getic. His  form,  though  conservative,  is  well  rounded.  His  orchestration  is  chaste  and  refined 
rather  than  sensational  and  glowing.  He  has  proved  himself  a  keen  judge  of  those  essentials 
required  for  large  instrumental  works.  MacDowell's  music  possesses  certain  characteristics 
that  distinguish  it  from  that  of  any  other  American  composer.  His  education  has  been  thoroughly 
cosmopolitan.  He  aims  to  induce  poetic  imagination  symbolic  of  emotional  reality.  His  chord 
formations,  harmonic  progressions,  thematic  treatment,  and  structural  form  are  all  in  accord 
with  the  psychological  subtleties  to  be  expressed.  His  orchestration  is  one  of  his  strongest  attri- 
butes; though  founded  upon  that  of  Raff,  it  possesses  also  the  charming  touch  of  the  modem 
French  school.  Parker  has  risen  to  eminence  through  his  choral  writings,  and  is  the  best  known 
American  writer  in  England.  He  wields  his  orchestral  forces  with  no  uncertain  hand,  but  does 
not  allow  tone-color  in  its  own  right  to  predominate  in  his  choral  works.  Further  prominent 
writers  for  the  orchestra  are  Gilchrist,  Gleason,  Foerster,  Beck,  Bird,  Kelley,  Schoenefeld,  Zeck, 
van  der  Stucken,  Mrs.  Beach,  F.  S.  Converse,  Huss,  Hadley.  Until  recently  the  larger  number 
of  orchestral  conductors  in  the  United  States  were  foreigners,  but  the  Americans  are  gradually 
taking  the  reins  into  their  own  hands.  The  present  display  of  musical  activity  in  America  is 
unprecedented.  The  schools,  the  colleges,  the  churches,  the  concert  hall,  the  dramatic  stage  are 
all  preparing  the  way  for  the  ascendency  of  the  American  composer. 


CONCLUSION. 

We  have  now  traced  the  history  of  our  modem  art  of  orchestration  through 
five  great  stages  of  evolution,  (i)  Under  the  head  of  "The  Cradle  of  Instrumental 
Music,"  musical  development  among  primitive  men  was  attributed  to  two  impel- 
ling forces :  emotional  expression  and  pagan  religious  rites.  The  nature  of  these 
early  attempts  at  musical  utterance  can  only  be  conjectured,  but  although  we  have 
no  knowledge  of  its  tonal  aspect,  extant  relics  and  representations  of  primitive 
instruments  among  such  races  as  the  Egyptians,  the  Assyrians  and  the  Jews  cor- 
respond to  the  leading  types  of  sound-producing  apparatus  belonging  to  civilized 
nations.  Authentic  history  discloses  the  development  of  artistic  music  in  India, 
in  Greece  and  in  early  Rome.  These  efforts  were  essentially  melodic.  Rhythm 
was  dependent  upon  poetic  instinct,  whereas  the  harmony  of  simultaneous  sounds, 
though  scientifically  expounded,  was  put  to  but  small  practical  use.  Systems  of 
harmony,  notation  and  measure  were  eventually  established,  though  circuitously 
devolved  from  the  tedious  experiments  of  the  scholastic  monks  to  the  more  tangible 
results  of  the  troubadours  and  of  the  masters  of  the  Netherland  School.  Lasso 
and  Palestrina  eventually  pointed  the  way  toward  a  settled  tonality  determined 
by  harmonic  considerations.  (2)  "The  Dawn  of  Independent  Instrumentation" 
treats  of  the  further  development  of  consistent  tonality,  of  greater  rhythmic  free- 
dom, of  artistic  structural  form,  and  of  the  gradual  ascendency  of  a  secular  style 
in  connection  with  solo-singing  and  independent  instrumental  music.  Independent 
instrumental  music  found  its  origin  in  the  attempts  at  embellished  organ  accom- 
paniment; solo  singing  devolved  from  the  Miracle  Plays,  from  the  lyrics  of  the 
troubadours,  and  from  the  Florentine  monody  as  developed  by  Peri  and  Cavalieri, 
whose  theories  contained  the  germ  of  opera  and  oratorio,  for  which  instrumental 
accompaniment  is  a  requisite.  (3)  The  chapter  entitled  "Beginnings  of  Orches- 
tration" marks  the  actual  starting  point  for  the  nuclear  thought  of  this  book.  Here 
the  central  figure  is  Monteverde,  father  of  modem  instmmentation.  His  methods 
were  propagated  by  Carissimi  in  Italy,  Schiitz  in  Germany,  Cavalli  and  LuUi 
in  France.  The  greatest  orchestral  writer  after  Monteverde  was  Scarlatti.  (4) 
The  way  was  now  prepared  for  the  comprehensive  "Classic  Era,"  of  which  the 
central  figures,  as  regards  orchestral  evolution,  are  Haydn,  the  father  of  modem 
orchestration,  and  Beethoven,  —  magnificently  supported  by  Mozart,  and  to  a 
lesser  degree  by  Bach,  Handel  and  Gluck.  In  the  earlier  part  of  this  era,  France 
owed  the  high  standard  of  her  indigenous  music  primarily  to  Rameau  and  Grdtry. 

183 


l84  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

The  former  stands  as  an  exponent  of  serious  opera,  whereas  the  latter  established 
opera  comique  upon  a  permanent  basis.  Rameau  found  a  worthy  successor  in 
the  great  orchestrator,  Mehul.  Gretry  was  succeeded  by  Boieldieu,  Auber, 
Herold,  Halevy.  Meanwhile  the  orchestration  of  Italy  did  not  keep  pace  with 
that  of  Germany  or  France.  The  Italians  were  primarily  engaged  in  composing 
church  music  and  in  writing  operas  that  should  satisfy  the  existing  demands  for 
vocal  virtuosity.  Pergolesi  was  a  notable  exception.  Even  though  the  art  of 
instrumentation  had  originated  in  Italy,  no  important  evolutionist  of  orchestration 
can  be  mentioned  between  Scarlatti  (1659)  and  Cherubini  (1760);  the  latter  is 
moreover  identified  with  France  rather  than  with  Italy.  Spontini,  Rossini,  and 
the  German,  Meyerbeer,  likewise  won  their  laurels  in  Paris.  Cherubini  and 
Spontini  stand  as  the  chief  Italian  exponents  of  orchestration  during  the  classic 
era,  the  one  for  the  church,  the  other  for  the  drama.  (5)  The  classic  era  overlaps 
the  rise  and  growth  of  the  "Romantic  Movement,"  for  the  highest  attainments 
of  Beethoven,  Auber  and  Rossini  were  not  reached  until  after  Spohr  and  Weber 
had  already  entered  the  lists.  These  two  early  romanticists  were  shortly  succeeded 
by  Schubert,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  by  the  classical-romanticists,  headed  by 
Raff  and  Brahms,  and  by  the  originators  of  the  New  Movement,  Berlioz,  Liszt, 
Wagner.  Recent  development  of  differentiated  types  of  orchestration  discloses 
the  unique  fact  that  almost  every  country  of  musical  prominence  is  represented 
by  a  single  orchestral  writer  of  unusual  ability  whose  success  was  dependent  upon 
the  initiatory  work  of  one  single  predecessor.  Italy  is  represented  by  Spontini 
and  Verdi,  France  by  Berlioz  and  Saint-Saens,  Bohemia  by  Smetana  and  Dvorak, 
Scandinavia  by  Gade  and  Grieg,  Russia  by  Glinka  and  Tschaikowsky,  Germany 
by  Wagner  and  Richard  Strauss. 

The  above  epitome  presents  the  historical  aspect  of  orchestral  development. 
Due  credit  has  been  given  to  those  men  who  particularly  helped  to  forge  the  con- 
necting links  in  the  evolutionary  chain,  irrespective  of  the  intrinsic  value  of  their 
own  instrumentation.  In  antithesis  to  the  above  historical  aspect,  the  following 
synopsis  presents  the  purely  practical  aspect  of  orchestration  proper  as  developed 
by  thirteen  men  whose  contributions  thereto  would  appear  to  be  of  chief  import- 
ance. They  are  named  in  chronological  order  without  regard  to  evolutionary 
sequence  or  nationality.  It  is  from  their  works  that  the  specimens  of  orchestral 
scoring  in  the  appendix  to  this  book  have  been  chosen.  These  thirteen  repre- 
sentatives are:  Monteverde,  Scarlatti,  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Weber,  Berlioz, 
Mendelssohn,  Wagner,  Saint-Saens,  Tschaikowsky,  Dvorak,  Richard  Strauss. 
Monteverde  aimed  to  obtain  expressive  and  dramatic  effects,  established  the 
orchestra  on  a  permanent  basis  of  stringed  instruments  played  with  a  bow,  and 
realized  the  necessity  for  an  individualistic  and  differentiated  style  of  writing  for 
voices    and  instruments.     Scarlatti  divided  his  strings  into  four   parts,  properly 


CONCLUSION  185 


dispersed  and  balanced,  readjusted  the  relation  of  the  wind  instruments  to  the 
rest  of  the  orchestra  by  employing  them  in  pairs,  strengthened  and  extended  the 
structure  of  his  opera-symphonies.  Haydn  established  a  perfectly  balanced  orches- 
tra as  a  whole,  realized  the  value  of  the  wood-wind  in  their  capacity  of  lending 
warmth  and  color  to  the  orchestral  canvass,  employed  them  systematically  in  pairs, 
and  regulated  the  proportion  of  the  brass  to  the  strings  and  wood.  Mozart  in- 
fused into  the  orchestra  vitality  and  warmth,  exploited  the  proper  functions  of  the 
wood- wind  with  especial  attention  to  those  of  the  clarinet,  and  was  the  first  to  con- 
sistently mix  the  tonal  colors  of  the  orchestra.  The  evolution  of  the  classic  orchestra 
culminated  in  the  symphonic  writings  of  Beethoven.  His  scoring  not  only 
embodies  the  ideals  of  his  predecessors,  but  treats  each  instrument  also  with 
characteristic  individuality,  subordinated,  however,  as  a  means  for  faithfully 
depicting  the  details  of  the  composition  proper.  He  pointed  the  way  for  the  sub- 
sequent romanticists,  and  his  descriptive  music  proves  that  even  with  comparatively 
simple  means  gorgeous  tone-painting  can  be  attained.  Weber  initiated  a  novel 
style  of  dramatic  orchestration  and  contributed  substantially  to  the  independence 
of  the  wood-wind.  Berlioz  was  the  first  of  the  great  modem  symphonists  and 
represents  the  ultra-realistic  school  of  orchestral  program-music.  He  combined 
both  dramatic  and  symphonic  principles  but  also  applied  tone-color  in  its  own 
right.  His  imique  genius  disclosed  itself  in  the  discovery  of  new  combinations, 
new  effects,  new  treatment,  and  in  his  power  of  musical  description.  The  orches- 
tration of  Mendelssohn  is  invaluable  for  its  finish  of  detail.  It  is  buoyant,  trans- 
parent, delicate,  and  perfectly  balanced.  Wagner  brought  the  art  of  dramatic 
orchestration  to  its  highest  point  of  evolution.  His  orchestration  does  not  deviate 
from  well-established  and  approved  principles,  but  the  grouping  and  treatment  of 
instruments  are  entirely  new.  He  emphasized  solidity,  made  the  orchestra  firm 
and  supple,  increased  its  melodic  as  well  as  harmonic  force,  and  used  it  for  two 
definite  purposes :  to  render  emotion  and  to  portray  action  and  situations.  Saint- 
Saens'  methods  emphasize  the  prevailing  custom  of  his  countrymen  to  combine 
French  traditions  and  advanced  German  principles.  Clear  and  compact  form, 
comparative  simplicity  of  thematic  treatment,  elaborate,  rich,  varied  and  above 
all  scintillating  orchestration  constitute  the  cardinal  features  of  his  conspicuous 
attainments.  The  ideal  representative  of  Greater  Russia  is  Tschaikowsky.  He 
secured  a  gloomy  eloquence  of  instrumentation  by  drawing  upon  the  lower  accents 
of  the  orchestra,  but  was  also  a  master  of  magnificent  and  stirring  effects.  Dvorak 
evolved  his  music  from  the  Bohemian  folk-song  and  was  a  master  of  vivacious  and 
refined  orchestration.  His  scoring  is  appropriate,  consistent,  varied,  warm  and 
brilliant.  It  abounds  in  beautiful  combinations.  It  is  rich  but  never  overbur- 
dened. Richard  Strauss  is  proving  himself  a  worthy  successor  to  Wagner  as  a 
result  of  his  marvellous  insight  into  the  specific  characteristics  of  each  individual 


1 86  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

instrument  and  of  his  genius  for  combining  them  in  a  bewildering  network  of 
contrapuntally  interwoven  melodic  themes.  He  possesses  an  hitherto  unheard 
of  orchestral  technique,  and  taxes  both  the  executive  ability  and  the  artistic 
attributes  of  the  instrumentalists  to  the  utmost.  He  makes  use  of  elaborately 
conceived  programs  necessitating  vast  orchestral  resources,  is  an  extremist  in 
the  realm  of  realism,  and  secures  powerful  dramatic  effects  by  means  of  vivid 
orchestration. 

Orchestration  in  its  present  development  would  seem  to  have  reached  its 
highest  possible  attainment  of  effectiveness  and  virtuosity.  The  problem  of  the 
future,  therefore,  deals  not  so  much  with  material  increase  of  orchestral  resource, 
as  with  what  manner  of  thought  and  music  the  orchestra  is  destined  to  portray. 
What  are  to  be  the  musical  ethics  of  the  twentieth  century  composers  ?  The  most 
subtle  thinkers  of  the  world  have  generally  taken  an  idealistic  view  of  the  social 
mission  of  musical  art.  Eminent  psychologists  of  Germany,  France  and  England, 
who  otherwise  represent  distinctive  and  frequently  antagonistic  schools  of  philo- 
sophy, all  agree  on  this  point,  as  illustrated  by  a  few  quotations  selected  from  the 
writings  of  Hegel,  Schopenhauer,  Emile  Montegut  and  Herbert  Spencer.  Music, 
according  to  Hegel,  should  "fill  the  heart  and  bring  to  consciousness  everything 
developed  and  undeveloped  which  human  feeling  can  carry,  experience  and  bring 
forth,  in  its  innermost  and  most  secret  parts;  whatever  the  human  heart  in  its 
manifold  possibilities  and  moods  desires  to  express  or  excite;  and  especially  what- 
ever the  spirit  has  in  its  idea  of  the  Most  Essential  and  High;  the  glory  of  the 
Honored,  the  Eternal  and  the  True."  Schopenhauer  declared  that  music  "never 
expresses  phenomena,  but  solely  the  inner  being,  the  essence  of  phenomena,  the 
will  itself.  It  expresses,  therefore,  not  this  or  that  single  and  particular  joy,  this 
or  that  sorrow,  or  pain,  or  horror,  or  exultation,  or  hilarity,  or  repose  of  mind 
itself;  but,  as  it  were  in  abstracto,  the  essentials  of  these  without  their  concom- 
itants, therefore  without  their  motives.  Nevertheless,  in  such  quintessence  we 
understand  it  perfectly.  Hence  our  fancy  is  so  easily  excited  by  it  and  tries  to 
clothe  this  invisible  spirit  world,  that  speaks  to  us  so  immediately  and  eloquently, 
with  flesh  and  blood,  i.e.  to  embody  it  in  an  analogous  example."  Emile  Mon- 
tegut expresses  himself  to  the  effect  that  this  magic  sound  of  what  is  called  music 
"pierces  the  material  barriers  which  limit  human  words;  it  gives  to  hearts  the 
means  of  communicating  among  themselves;  it  creates  a  language  of  which  the 
most  ignorant  and  the  poorest  perceive  all  the  power  and  all  the  sweetness. 
Music  speaks,  and  suddenly  the  hearts  which  were  chilled  with  consciousness  of 
their  own  isolation  are  thrilled  with  tenderness  and  radiant  with  happiness." 
Herbert  Spencer  believed  that  "music  ought  to  take  rank  at  the  head  of  the  fine 
arts  because  it  is  the  one  which  adds  most  to  human  happiness.  Not  content 
with  exciting  powerfully  our  better  instincts,  it  awakens  sentiments  lying  dormant 


CONCLUSION  187 


in  us,  of  which  we  had  not  conceived  the  possibihty,  of  which  we  do  not  under- 
stand the  sense.  This  obscure  presentment  of  an  unknown  happiness,  which 
music  awakens  in  us,  this  confused  dream  of  an  ideal  and  new  life,  all  this  is  but 
a  prophecy  of  something  which  music  itself  ought  assuredly  to  accomplish."  In 
contrast  to  the  above  enthusiastic  utterances,  how  material  and  unsatisfying  are 
the  dreary  speculations  of  such  men  as  Leibnitz!  The  latter  looked  upon  music 
as  being  but  the  '^  exercitium  arithmeticae  occultum  nescientis  se  numerare  animi"\ 
The  ideal  mission  of  music,  therefore,  ever  has  been  and  surely  should  continue 
to  be  that  of  upliftmg.  It  should  present  a  moral  synonymous  for  the  aesthetic, 
the  pure,  the  spiritual.  It  should  reveal  the  highest  ideals  of  the  living  soul.  It 
should,  according  to  Browning,  express  truth,  not  of  the  mind  —  knowledge, 
which  is  absolute,  but  of  the  soul  —  shifting.  Music  above  all  other  arts  inter- 
prets the  innermost  thoughts  of  the  soul.  It  is  being  constantly  re-created,  whereas 
all  other  arts  are  but  the  images  of  what  is  already  created.  The  imitative 
arts  —  sculpture  and  painting,  can  no  longer  be  all-satisfying  to  the  self -conscious- 
ness of  an  age  influenced  by  the  subjective  thought  of  such  men  as  Goethe  and 
Schiller.  Why,  therefore,  should  modem  music  be  reared  solely  upon  a  similar 
realistic  basis  of  imitation  instead  of  upon  an  idealistic  one  of  representation? 
The  fundamentals  of  music  rest  upon  an  acoustic  element  dependent  upon 
absolute  pitch.  Since,  however,  an  isolated  tone  cannot  suggest  a  definite  idea 
or  image,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  that  music  should  mean  something,  to  connect 
a  series  of  tones  so  as  to  produce  melody,  to  combine  several  tones  so  as  to  form 
chords,  and  to  group  these  chords  so  as  to  obtain  contrasts  of  tonality  and  modes. 
This  accomplished,  there  must  be  added  rhythmic  life,  variety  of  tone-color,  and 
dynamic  contrast.  Finally,  the  whole  fabrication  must  be  fitted  into  a  frame- 
work of  structural  form  based  upon  the  science  of  logic.  But  all  this  is  not  enough. 
There  exists  an  underlying  psychological  principle  that  cannot  be  disregarded. 
Appreciation  for  acoustic  effects  and  the  realizations  of  intellectual  reflection  are 
but  the  stepping  stones  to  something  higher.  The  first  requirement  of  a  com- 
poser is  intuition  or  the  spontaneous  expression  of  musical  instinct  —  an  element 
more  essential  to  musical  creation  than  to  any  other  branch  of  art.  Further 
requisites  are  imagination,  emotion,  inspiration,  and  above  all  spirituality.  There 
is  a  tendency  among  recent  exponents  of  the  most  advanced  school  to  declare  that 
the  possibilities  of  purely  aesthetic  music  have  been  exhausted.  Morbidness  and 
pessimism  dominate  the  creative  conceptions  of  these  recent  experimentalists. 
They  are  leaning  more  and  more  toward  the  expression  of  concrete  ideas  con- 
cealing vague  abstractions.  The  present  writer  is  heartily  in  sympathy  with  the 
most  catholic  application  of  all  legitimate  resources  so  long  as  the  primary  object 
of  musical  utterance  be  not  lost  sight  of.  It  goes  without  saying  that  descriptive, 
imitative,  realistic  and  even  morbid  music  has  its  proper  place  in  the  poetic  con- 


l88  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  ORCHESTRATION 

ceptions  of  our  contemporary  tone-masters.  Exception  only  is  made  to  music 
that  is  primarily  intellectual  or  pessimistic.  On  the  other  hand,  it  need  not  be 
primarily  pleasure-giving.  In  a  word,  all  such  objectives  should  be  made  sub- 
jective to  a  purer  motive.  The  portrayal  of  lesser  sentiments  and  passions  is 
legitimate  only  in  so  far  as  to  form  a  background  for  the  nobler,  which  are  thereby 
thrown  into  relief.  The  ideal  mission  of  music  is  to  reflect  the  loftiest  sentiments 
of  the  composer's  soul,  and  to  awaken  similar  experiences  in  the  mind  of  the 
auditor  so  as  to  inspire  and  uplift  him.  Such  were  the  ideals  of  Beethoven. 
May  his  example  continue  to  be  emulated! 


APPENDIX 

OF 

MUSICAL     ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

MONTEVERDE 191 

SCARLATTI 194 

HAYDN 197 

MOZART 203 

BEETHOVEN      208 

WEBER 215 

BERLIOZ      224 

MENDELSSOHN 232 

WAGNER      238 

SAINT-SAENS 247 

TSCHAIKOWSKY      254 

DVORAK 260 

RICHARD  STRAUSS 267 


191 


MONTEVERDE. 

(Pagei6) 
No.  I.     L'Orfeo :  Atto  I — Toccata,  {_che  si  suona  avanti  il  levar  de  la  tela  ire  volte  con  iutti  It  strotnenti.) 
^/Clarino. 


Quinta. 


vr-rt 


u:  ^' ^'  fj: 


n 


Alto  e  Basso. 


im-^ssTj 


gZl&^^-i- 


^^ 


^^ 


Vttlgano. 


m 


Basso. 


fc 


No.  3.     L'Orfeo:  Atto  II — Ritomello.    {Questo  Ritomellofy  sonata  di  dentra  da  un  Clavicetnbatio ,  duoi  Chitaroni,  e 

2  Violini piccioli  alia  Francese.) 


■E^^ 


^    ^k  — — I    I    I    I 


'^Jiniiiuii 


^^'  r  f  r  ffiT 


W 


i^ 


^ 


itjt 


m 


m 


r^=Fim 


=«=£ 


p-^ — t;^ 


No.  3.    L'Orfeo:  Atto  III.     (Orfeo  canta  al suotio  del  Organo  di  legiM solamente^ 


^^ 


^^:rrf^—i:^^rrT-i-^=^=^ 


^     j^      ^      |i»      !  [^ 


Ei   dor-  me,       e     la  mia   ce  -  tra,   se  pie-ta    nonim-pe  -  tra       nel   in-du-ra   -  to    co  -   re. 


i 


^ 


^to 


*=r 


192 


MONTEVERDB. 


No.  4.    L'Orfao :  Atto  IV— SInfonia. 

\Ifo  instrunuMtt  iMdieated.) 

1=^ 


feg 


^^ 


-r-T-T 


^ 


^^g 


^ 


m    m    „  — ^= 


f     >=        ^ 


^^ 


^^ 


^ 


-Sz. 


fe"  r  J  r'  1^ 


g 


f^^ 


r  r  ■"  J 


No.  5.    VOrfiM :  Atto  V.    [AfoUo  *d  Or/to  oMctndt  ml  eieU  cantMido.) 


Sa  •  liam, 


Sa   •  liam 


Sa  -  liam 


(Piantfortt  A  rrangtment.    No  ifuirumtnis  ifuUcateJ.) 


^ 


I  I 


r—? 


5-^T"i" 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


.^^k 


MONTEVERDE. 


193 


can       •       Un 


i 


^ 


1 


*^^-   I  ■  !  !   I  1^!   I  !   !  I  {  y  '  \    '   I  '  'III  1  '    ^ 


d'al 


lo. 


P 


^ 


-9 ti 


^ 


d'al     cie    -    lo, 


I  I 


S 


^       <5i 


^ 


194 

No.  6.    La  Rosaura:  Prologo-Slnfonia. 
Allegro. 


SCARLATTI. 

(  Page  2a ) 


8CARLATTL 


195 


No.  7.    La  Rosaura :  Atto  I  —  Scana  II. 
'     Largo.  ( Violino.) 


f 


3        ^- 


B*.^,^-,!. 


^ 


^ 


i 


ii 


:3==t 


^^ 


(Climene.) 


Lan-gue,         ge  -  me,        ge  -  me.quest'     a       -     ni-ina,a  -man  -  te. 


Ian  -  gue. 


No.  8.    La  Rosaura:  Atto  ZI  —  Scena  II. 

Andanie. 
{Rosaura^ 


196 


SCARLATTL 


Mo.  9.    La  Rosaura:  Atto  II.— Scan*  IV. 

A  ria.  a  temfio. 
(C/imene  tela,) 


ma    inon     sia,     chi     di        mia     fe  -  de     il         can  -    dor 


ten 


{P/te  Arr.  Skelt  ton  Scort.) 


^^ 


-i— ^^qj 


6  6     6 


7      et 


ti,    ten-ti     of-fus-car        il        can  -  dor 


^^W 


:^ 


l"*~f    r 


^^ 


-J — J" 


S 


ti,    ten  -  ti     of-fus-car. 


r] — r 


^^^ 


No.  10.    Symphony  in  D,  No.  3:  ist  Movement. 
iFl.    Allegro. 


HAYDN. 

( Page  47) 


VI. 


Viola. 


Vcl.  e  Cb. 


^%Fr^ 


197 


^^ 


^ 


No.  II.    Symphony  in  D :  3d  Movement 
Fl.  I.     Andante. 


198 


HAYDN. 


No.  xa.    Symphony  In  D:  3d  Movemeot. 
AndatUe.  ^^    •  -^      t 


sempre  // 


i-r'Fi. 


HAYDN. 


200 

No.  13.    Symphony  in  D :  td  Movament. 

/xFl.    Andante.  ^ 


HAYDN. 


iT^^~r~T 


v^^ 


a 


^^^^^ 


^  *f 


-:{=: 


Ob.  / 


/tM  largo. 


% 


a  tempo. 


ptu  largo. 
^ 


«=^ 


3^^831 


'm. 


^ 


^ 


I: 


No.  14.    Symphony  No.  3 :  xst  Movement. 


^ 


5= 


^ 


Viola. 


^ 


J  r     ^ 


•^  r     -^ 


^J-^ — i^ 


Vcl,  e  Cb. 


^^^^^^ 


^^^ 


1    i         1 


pp 


JNo.  15.    Symphony  No.  4 :  xst  Movement. 

Vivace  assai. 


HAYDN. 


20I 


No.  i6.    Symphony  No.  s  :  ad  Movement. 
^A  da£^io  ma  non  troppo. 


Viola. 


^ 


=^=^ 


Vcl. 


Cb. 


I      J 


Eg=: 


202 


HAYDN. 


No.  17.    Symphony  No.  6 :  Adagio. 
^,/n.  I.    (Fl.  U  tacet.) 


^ 


^< 


SE 


:*: 


.>ii^ 


Ob. 


p 


fill 


S^ 


:i=^ 


.-^ 


jsr 


Tym.    ( con  sordino.)  [•  ] 


// 


T^^jj^^g^^^jjgp 


J-J-J7 


T     l^'l 


VI, 


4'4  jjjiij-iikj;j,jjj  i^ 


«s- 


JJJJJIJJJJJ  U-^ 


jfl«LiL^^LiiJ^^-L: 


^ 


tt^ 


Viola. 


:^r^r^V^b, 


^       • 


[*]  N.B 


No.  i8.    Jupiter  Symphony  :  Mcnuetto. 

'iFl.    AlUgretto. 


MOZART. 

( Page  so ) 


203 


No.  ig.   Jupiter  Symphony :  Final*. 

^  A  Utgro  tnolto.       -^ 


P 


^ 


^^ 


r-y^r 


^^ 


VI. 


p 


m 


^ 


:f:fi^ 


^ 


^^ 


i^r^ 


t* 


Viola. 


Vcl. 


^^^^ 


~;^   I  g? 


204 

No.  M.    Jupiter  Symphony :  Finals. 

-^  I  Fl.     A  lUgro  molto. 


MOZART. 


MOZART. 


Mo.  ax.    Symphony  in  G  minor :  ad  Movement 

/A  ndante. 


205 


yxn 


2o6 

"No.  aa.     Symphony  in  E  flat:  ad  Movement 
:  Fl.      Andante. 


MOZART. 


^ 


3  Cot.  iiiBs. 


i 


b'l."    ^      •■        C 


VI. 


J    -    c 


i 


= 9* =- 

^,r    ^     i^     ^ 


MOZART. 


No.  33.     Symphony  in  B  flat :  Menuetto. 
'i  Fl.     Trio. 


207 


Cor.  iaBs. 


-a dr 


s 


Viola.  /" 

til  ^       > 


Vcl.  e  Cb. 


^^^ 


4r j- 


208 


No.  34.    Fifth  Symphony :  ad  Movement. 
/ViOlA.     A  ndatUt  con  tnoto. 


BEETHOVEN. 

(Page  53) 


No.  as.    Fifth  Symphony :  ad  Movement. 

Andante  con  moto. 
'I  Fl.  ,. s         .- 


f 


^^^ 


^SE 


i 


1-    t- 


■     I     II- 


xOb. 


dolce. 


^ 


±^ 


a  CI.  in  B. 


dolce. 


No.  a6.  Fifth  Symphony  :  ad  Movement. 
fPiit  Mosso. 
I  Fag.  _      ^        .^ 


No.  37.    Fifth  Symphony :  3d  Movement. 
Allegro. 
Viola. 


BEETHOVEN. 


No.  18.    Fifth  Symphony :  3d  Movement 

Allegro. 


_i— '  sentpre  pp 

No.  39.    Fifth  Symphony :  3d  Movement. 

Allegro. 
,_^Tyni.    (Solo.) 


ttmpr*^ 


2IO 

No.  30.    Fifth  Symphony  :  Finale. 

A  Uegre. 
^..XFl.  piccolo. 


BEETHOVEN. 


<♦.    I    '     T 


m 

Ob.     I 


4^i=d= 


^ 


^^=^ 


s/ 


^s 


r  r  t  L" 

r    r    r   ^ 


:fe 


*/ 


# 


Contra  Fag. 


V 


^ 


•e^ 


-i— 1 1- 

*    gW — #- 


-rir^- 


i 


Cor.  inc. 


i/^ 


-^       J      J  J 


-H— |i- 


B^ 


Tr.  in  C. 


i 


^ 


^/ 


JL_L_C 


Tym. 


s/ 


sf 


^ 


^= 


4= 


-       i 


f 


_^Trombone- Alto , 

^L  «^ 


R? 


^ 


^ 


f 

Trombone 


4^ 


Tenc  re 


fe 


^/ 


r  r  r    r 


r  r  r    r 


f 

Trombone  -: 


*/ 


Basso 


^^ 


^ 


^/ 


S 


asEi 


BEETHOVEN. 


aiz 


^^/¥\.  piccolo: 


-j    m     ^  =;g: 


=f=t 


-^== 


/>»«/ 


Fl 


I 


t-^  T  r 


^ 


^ 


»  r 


^^^ 


Ob 


>!r 


I 


U.         t 


»«^-^ 


fe^ 


*:-«:- 


-^: 


:^»- 


=F=I= 


Piuf 

CI.  inC: 


*J       piuf 


¥=y 


^ 


3^ 


fe^=*=^=^ 


Fag 


5:    5:    it 


:^ 


«:    «:    5:    5: 


T=F 


M: 


^ 


piuf 
Contra  Fa^. 


// 


i^^^^ 


^^ 


^ 


TJ  ! ;  >i 


^.j'^r^  r^ 


J  ib;  J  i^j^ 


piuf 
Cor.  in  C. 


// 


^ 


4 1- 


i 


-I — I — I- 


-A — 4- 


^      ^     ^ 


*l     ^ — ^ 


:i     J    J-    -i 


^^=^=^ 


-^    ^    -•-    -«- 


Tr.  inC. 


>!/ 


1^ 


^^ 


^^i^ 


^ 


^—^  -i  -i 


-I       I       I       1:: 

-•-   -♦■    ^?    -*- 


Tym. 


^^ 


g^s^ 


1111= 


:*=i*=^fc=at 


piuf 
_^Trombone-Alto. 


>^ 


i^ 


I      1    - 


Trombone  -Tenor e.  ^ 


ff 


%:  i  - 


// 


Trombone  -Basso. 


:*= 


212  BEETHOVEN. 

No.  31.    Pastoral  Sjrmphony  :  ad  Movement. 

A  ndanie  molto  mosso. 

.Fag.  I. 


No.  S3.     Pastoral  Symphony  :  Shepherd's  Song. 
Allegretto. 
yCl.  linB.  _ 


P 


^ 


m 


dolce. 
Cor.  I  in  F. 


I 


?2^ 


-r-TTr 


m 


VI.  n. 


I 


b{}       - 


^^ 


Viola. 


i/^- 


9yi— ^ 


^ 


3^- 


>!^ 


1/ 


No.  33.    Seventh  Symphony :    Allegretto. 


BEETHOVEN. 


213 


m 


Viola. 


=ftfc 


«E 


W^-t 


-I  I 


senile  pp 
Vcl.  eCb. 


semprepp 


No.  34.    Seventh  Symphony :  3d  Movement. 


P 
P 


Presto. 
,F1.  I. 

^    B«-    ^i-    V 


1 — r- 


/ 


CI.  in  A. 


r  r 


Qc^r^ 


^M-^ 


#ii= 


a=£ 


^ 


4=1- 


-4=1 


/>/ 


lig:     :g:    iip 


l^g-     f: 


fc=. 


-t=i- 


=& 


Btf2. 


J=- 


B^- 


=i?^: 


// 


214 


BEETHOVEN. 


No.  35.    Seventh  Symphony  :  3d  Movement. 

A  Stat  tneru  presto. 
XI.  in  A. 


CI.  in  A. 


P^ 


Fag. 


lES 


^=#= 


E^^ 


:J— «=*: 


f=f= 


t=^=^ 


^wl 


Cor.  in  D, 


P 


iS •- 


^=^=^ 


Wm 


V4-^ 


f^ 


VI 


WEBER. 

(Page  71) 


215 


INo.  36.    Der  Freischiitz :  Overture. 
Adagio. 
/Cor.  in  F. 


2l6 

No.  37.    Der  Freischiitz  :  Overture. 
Molto  vivace. 
XUi.  in  B. 


WEBER. 


WEBER. 


No.  38.     Der  Freischutx  :  Overture. 
jMolte  vioac*. 
Fl.  I 


^ 


InBs. 


:@i: 


Comi. 
in  C 


IfFfe 


lfe= 


^ 


ff 
TroBbe  in  C. 


P 


^ 


Timp. 


^^=^ 


Alto.  Tenore. 


P  hblf 


J LP 


^^ 


// 

Tromboni. 
Basso. 


S 


t— tr^ 


=i^^=P 


1=?=^ 


:?=: 


^ 


f 


fee 


^^ 


:« 


^ 


^^ 


■t — — h— 


^ 


Viol. 


2l8 


WEBER. 


^yVl 


No.  3g.    Der  Freischiitz :  Overture- 

Molto  vivace. 
^Ob.  1. 


WEBER. 


219 


No.  40.     Der  Freischiitz :  Overture. 

Molto  vivace. 


^^Clar.  in  B 


320 

_^Cl*r.  In  B 


WBBBR. 


WEBER. 


No.  42.    Der  Freiscbiitz:  Act  I  —Scene  II 
Allegro  tnodtrato. 


331 


No.  43.     Der  Freischiitz  :  Act  II  —  Scene  XI. 

A  dagio. 
/(con  sordini.) 


Lei  -  se,        lei  -    se,        from    -      me    Wei   -     se,       schwing'dichauf  zum  Stemcn  -krei 


222 


WEBER. 


No.  44.    Der  Freischiitz  :  Act  II  —Scene  IV. 

Sostenttto. 
''Ob. 

iJi 


$ 


^ 


*=  = 


I 


Clar.  in  A. 


1^ 


S 


^ 


^ 


Fa.^^ 


^■ 


V/" 


8=^ 


^ 


Sz 


Timp. 


// 


^- 


9^-n  Jt     1   1^ 


^^ 


1     !   i    4 


-J-H 


■^  ■! 


A> 


// 


i 


«ft 


1^ 


^i^= 


Tromboni. 


// 


^ 


B5UL^    J   I    i 


t— 1-^-=^^:]     ;  i=^=j=d^ 


3=^ 


¥— ^— 1»- 


^ 


Jf 


/> 


No.  45.     Der  Freischiitz :  Act  II  —  Scene  IV. 

Agitato. 
/Cor.  in  C. 


VI. 


^=t 


-H- 


"mrr^ 


tt  _^ 


^^^^ 


3=^ 


Viola. 


-• — « — •- 


=1=::^: 


g-~vT 


^^ 


ES 


'1         ^ 


-i — r 


■• •^^s — ^ — « — • — •- 


VTEBER. 


223 


No.  46.    Der  Freischiitz  :  Act  II  —  Scene  IV. 

A  lU^ro. 
^^Clar.  in  A. 


NO.  47.    Der  Preischutz:  Act  III—  Scene  III. 

/    Recti.  Andante.  Recit. 


Andante. 


f 


iJ;^*: 


Recti. 


^^B 


^ 


VI.  > 


A> 


J*-' 


i 


^ 


^ 


Viola. 


5=^ 


tpi»-. 


i 


^E 


Oat 


^ 


Viola  obligata. 

(a  piacere.) 


ennchen. 


dolce 


^ 


^ 


^    1^  p* 


Du  ziimest  mir  ? 


Vcl.  eCb. 


224 


No.  48.    Sjmiphonie  fantastique :  Reveries. 

Largo. 
^^Cor.  I.  n  in  Bs. 


BERLIOZ. 

(Page  89) 


/5or.  I.  II 


InEs. 


MMfoeopiit  MtOSSO, 


^^-^ 1 


fi-fi-    =i: 


^ 


Cor.  III.  lY  in  C. 


ni.    3 


n. 


tWi 


ttc 


'ZS  \       PrT-^ 


trr-r\ s^:gF=f^ 


^,J     I     !     I 


^:C* 


jci 


Viol. 


>  tr 

cresc.  poco  a  poco . 


t-'-f-V 


I      I      I      I      1      I      I      i      I 


f^ir^ 


»*t*=t=4;=t=4=5? 


H — I    #w   I — '■ — »— I — I k- 


4-Pr   f3|*"g=: 


Viole. 


/  e*-***:. 


BERLIOZ. 


225 


No.  49.     Symphonie  fiantastique :  Smoc  aux  champs. 

( l<miaHo,) 


No.  50.     Symphonie  fantastique :  Scene  aux  champs. 


,A  dagie 
Fl. 


igu 


CI.  I  in  B. 


Viol.    pizz. 


^^. 


BERLIOZ. 


CI.  linB. 


$ 


^H=^ 


Echo. 


^ 


=b*=i^ 


//// 


Viol. 


^^¥=1^ 


3C=i= 


^•==t=: 


-f_gj*. 


^it 


r^i£b>_^  >  (^  ^ 


:^ 


^^^ 


?t=^ 


^  I    i    i    I 


:^^ 


Viole. 


encora  piu 


PPPP. 


encora  piu  pppp 


No.  SI.    Symphonie  fantastique :  Scene  aux  champs. 

jA  dagio. 
^«^Cor.  ingl. 


:V=-      P 


— ^Cor.  ingl 


BERLIOZ. 


227 


No.  5a.     Symphonic  fantasttque :  Marche  au  supplice. 

jA  lUfretto  non  troppo. 
I  e  0  in  B  basso. 


^?E^ 


(consord.) 
II 


PP 


Corni. 

Ill  e  IV  in  Bs. 


|iE 


^* 


^ 


^S 


*==fc 


(con  sord.) 


// 


^^^^^^^-^^ 


Timpani,  (baguettes  d'eponge.) 
II. 


Violoncelli. 
fizz. 


§s^=^ 


t — ^i- 


i      ■      i 


pp 


Contrabassi.  div.  a  4. 

ipizz.  I 


.1 


I — i — j- 


^ 


Ell — *=^ 


J— ^-^1 


/»/ 


No.  53.     Symphonie  fantasttque :  Marche  au  supplice. 

,A  llegretto  non  troppo. 
m^'Sa.z.       a  2. 


228 


BERLIOZ. 


No.  54.     Syxnphenie  fantastique :  Marche  au  supplicc 

A  lUgrettc  non  iroppo. 
^„/Fl.  a  a. 


Ob. 


i^^'<''  i    }j- 


jj*"  r   r   r- 


:3= 1 [I 


=tPF 


=s 


«/ 


Clar.  in  C. 


Fag.  as. 


9:.h(*   n^  ^ 


jnf       n^- 


I         I 


«/ 


TromlMne  Alto. 


SE 


^ 


Tromboni  Tenorl  I  e  U. 


ss 


»«/ 


»«/ 


=@= 


Tnbal. 


^ 


BBRLIOZ. 


229 


__,/Fl.  a  a.   ^ 


Ob.  a  3. 


$ 


-f-r-^ 


i-       I 


III 


Clar.  inc.  a  a. 


I 


5^J-a^J      ^        \      ^      J-U-JL^ 


^    i     J     J„F^=^ 


3=4=:3=t: 


41*^:*=*: 


15" 


Fag.  a  a. 


gffi 


=^%= 


-.4.- 


Trombone  Alto. 


Tromboni  Tenori  I  e  II. 


Tuba  I. 


Viol. 


Viole. 


^^d=z^z=^u_m 


Vcl. 


Cb. 


^ 


^^3SE 


I  -f= 


230 

No.  55.    Symphonic  fantastique:  Ronde  du  Sabbat. 

Allegro, 
^^Fl.  pice. 


BERLIOZ. 


P 


Fl.  Solo. 


P 


-iz: 


■i-   t= 


r^-L^J— L 


^>  f  If.  -r% 


f~v^L:^ 


f=i2Jr=dE=f: 


4=. 


'»-\>it-    •      V  iWt. 


^Efe 


^111 


>»  i'Sg- 


Ob. 


^ 

iT  /» 


i£.Ii 


-B^ 


-nd-JS 


^^^jj 


g**    ^  b.*    JJlj 


T      T 


piegg. 
CI.  I.  iiiBs. 


P^ 


CI.  n.  in  C. 


^Fl.picc.^     ^  1^ 


..     b. 


BERLIOZ. 


231 


No.  56.    Harold  en  Italic  :  Serenade. 
A  llegro  tutai. 


No.  57.    Harold  en  Italie:  Orgie  de  Brigands. 


232 

MENDELSSOHN. 

(Page  75) 
No.  sSw    Midsummer  Night's  Orsam :  Overture. 

A  lleero  di  tnolio, 
1.  I. 


1^ 

P 


f 


Ob.  I. 

1^ 


W^H^  ^       r  ^   I  -^   '^ 


w  -\ 


CI.  I  in  A. 


A» 


({ 


VI.  I. 


-tj*. 


'thV,  \      !      f^^. 


Tr   ^  r  r-^- 


s^^ 


ii±: 


>/ 


^ 


I 


% 


I*      ^      «*      •      !*      ^  =^ 


^ — I*- 


VI.  U 


// 


^ 


^3? 


-l—L^i=Xz 


^^ 


ftrrrr^^^^ 


**  .  ¥ 


^^ 


A> 


^^ 


!      I      ! 


MENOEL.SSOHN. 


No.  59.    Midsummer  Night's  Dream :  Scherzo. 

/Allegro  vivace. 
l-^Fl.       . 


^ZZ 


234 

No.  60.    Midsummer  Night's  Dream :  Scherzo. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


£^ 


^^  J  J  J  J  J 


^^ 


^- 


£.5E^ 


^Pt 


~¥^ 


VI. 


^ 


^ 


^ — r     A. 


Viola. 


Vcl.  e  Cb. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


235 


No.  6x.    Midsummer  Night's  Dream :  No.  5. 

A  llegromoUocotHodo, 


No.  61.    Midsummer  Night's  Dream :  No.  6. 

A  llegro. 


No.  63.    Midsummer  Night's  Dream  :  No;  6. 

^^ Alligro  fnolto. 


fz   h.^-^^^  ^  ^ 


236 


MENDELSSOHN. 


No.  64.    Midsummer  Night's  Oraam :  No.  6. 

A  lltgro  molto. 


Viola. 


^ 


r  #  i>> 


tm-W 


-V 


-I— 4— L- 


E 


:t=t 


H^^^^ 


4= 


Vcl. 


g^TTJ?^ 


1=3= 


^^^^^Si^ 


Cb. 


i?^ 


rt==ii 


4:=^ 


:*=^ 


No.  65.    Midsummer  Night's  Dream '.  Nottumo. 
Con  moto  tranquUlo. 
^Cl.  lin  A. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


237 


'CI.  I  in  A 


No.  66.    Midsummer  Night's  Dream  :  Nottumo. 
Con  moto  tranquillo. 


•238 


No.  67.    Die  Walkiire:  Act  I—  Scene  I 
M'dssig, 
in  Vol.  allein. 


WAGNER. 

(Page  93) 


WAGNBR. 


Hfirn.  (B) 


^ 


f:     -.         I  —t 


(etwas  rail.) 


Viol. 


i 


i± 


^ 


m 


!  I 


^^^ 


^  * 


>C^^ 


Br. 


J^^^ 


^ 


// 


^ 


si 


*   -1  1  i 


Vc. 


s 


^^=^ 


piitp 


240 

No.  6g.    Die  Walkiire :  Act  I  —Scene  I. 

LangtatH. 
^^^'    «3. 


WAGNER. 


No.  70.    Die  Walkare :  Act  I  —  Scene  II. 

Mdssig  langiatK. 
''CUr.  3  in  B. 


P 


^ 


Fag.  a. 


Fag.  3. 


/A 


^^ 


:*a= 


BassCIar.  (B) 


l^EiE= 


JL. 


!  !  I         T 


-■sr- 


-f*- 


11=^ 


T*: 


// 


No.  71.    Die  'Walkiire :  Act  I  —Scene  II. 
Mdssig  langsatn 
lob.  X.      


No.  73.    Die  Walkure :  Act  I  —  Scene  III, 

Hr.  3.  (inB) 


WAGNER. 


241 


^  ^^ 


No:  73.    Die  Walkure  :  Act  I  —Scene  IIL 

^Mdssig  invert. 
CI.  I.  (B) 


ff^ 


i 


^ 


^ 


^ 


Viol.  — == 


m/ 


dim. 


dim. 


=3F 


Br.- 


dim. 


^^i. 


H^T'Fi* .a'PF'* 


'"ifTi 


i 


ff      g^ 


I  I  I  I 


T-r^-^-=v^  I  I  I 


r«: 


nrm'^ 


!  i  #  ^  r  I  i  -frr 


li 


-  .--I         - 


Vc. 


i     I    i     i    !     I 
mf 


dim. 


ej^^ 


m 


cresc. 
C.B.^ 


lOt 


,«/ 


f»/ 


WAGNER. 


244 

No.  74.    Die  Walkure :  Act  I  —  Scene  III 
jMiusig  brwtet. 


WAGNER. 


WAGNER. 


246 

^o.  75.     Die  Walkiirc :  Act  I  —  Scene  III 

/Aldssiz  tchnell. 


WAGNER. 


SAINT-SAENS. 

( Page  131 ) 


247 


No.  76.     Le  Rouet  d'  Omphale. 
r^x.re  g.de  pi.    AlUgro. 


248 


SAINT-SAENS. 


No.  77.    Lc  Rou«t  d  '  Omphals. 

Allegro. 
x.re  g.de  pi, 

-J 


z.^c  CI.  en  L«. 


en  Re. 


I 


an<       1      1: 


B^ 


-i^ — :l 


4  w 


Cors. 


euHill. 


^^ 


i 


=t*= 


=3= 


^      Pizz. 


^^ 


3^ 


^ 


^ 


Altos. 


,V.Ue.  pixj. 


^m 


>  T 


C.  B.  pizz. 


a%^— Tz:t; 


~f     1" 


u     .    I 


SAINT-SA£NS. 


249 


No.  78,     Le  Rouet  d'Omphale. 


Allegro. 
'g.des  Y\. 


>-    J^^ 


CI.  en  La 


BassoDS. 


TT^i* 


»-\f'T-\\ 


p  tranquil 
Triangle 


lo. 


^ 


^2^ 


Harpe. 


'i.ersviol 


1 


fe 


I// 


=*=^ 


250 

No.  79.    Phaeton. 

A II.  animato. 

/a  Trompettes  cbromatiques  en  Ut. 


SAINT-SAENS. 


fe 


::S=t: 


f  marcato. 

i.*^  Trombone. 


EE 


-ft=>- 


C? 


^=g 


F~f*     r 


isii!= 


/  tnarcato. 
/i.ersviol. 


:t=t 


-X~T 


=t=t 


:t=t 


U     I 


=J=t: 


2.d8  Viol. 


Pft 


-I     i     I 


\    J 

''a  Trompettes  cbromatiques  en  Ut. 


t:£- 


!:£■ 


tST^'^^ 


P 


:*: 


t^^ 


rrt 


=^= 


5^ 


X.*'  Trombone. 


^ 


^^ 


^ 


/i  ersviol. 


P 


i=5: 


:^ 


-T=t: 


^Eg^ 


Sss 


i 


a.ds  Viol. 

— ji« ^*-*- 


:J=t= 


=t=t 


-|     i     I 


=^ 


=t=t 


Eg^ 


l:S- 


li^B" 


No.  80.    Danse  Macabre. 

Mouvetnent  tnodiri  de  Volte, 


a  Cors.  (Chrom.)  en  Re. 


Timb. 


1^ 


* 


i^= 


5i 


Harpe./ 


^ 


^ 


S 


E^^^i 1: 


SAINT-SAENS. 


No.  8i.    Danse  Macabre. 

Mouvenunt  mocUri  d*  Volte 
laat. 


251 


252 

No.  82.     La  Jeunessc  d' Hercule. 
te  Fl. 


SAINT-SAENS. 


^ 


CI.  en  Si  b. 


/ 


yi.^r  et  a.c  Trombones. 


9=     (',    - 


Une  Cymbale  frappee  avec  la  mailloche  de  la  Grosse  Caisse. 


S 


t 


SS; 


Haipe. 


/ 


^^ 


# 


^=^ 


/i.ers  Viol 


1 


^,^y^  et  Cb. 


pizz. 


SAINT-SAENS. 


CI.  en  Sib. 


m 


/i.C"^  et  2.C  Trombones. 


^^ 


':S^- 


^^ 


^ 


CymtMile. 


254 


No.  83.    Symphonic  pathitique :  xst  Movemeot. 


TSCHAIKOWSKY. 

( Page  iSS ) 


No.  84.    Symphonie  pathetique :  ist  Movement. 

Allegro  nontroppo. 
j^CI.  I  in  A. 


T8CHAIKOWSKY. 


255 


No.  85.     Symphonie  pathetique:  ist  Movement. 
^Ff.  I.    AlUp 


molio. 


TSCHAIKOWSKY. 


TSCHAIKOWSKY. 


257 


No.  86.     Symphonic  pathetique  :  ist  Movement 
/Fl.  1.   Tempo  ritenuto. 


OHttnando. 


Mo.  87.    Symphonic  pathetique  :  ad  Movement. 

Allegro  con zrazia. 
^C\.  I  va.  A. 

-5 


2rg  TSCHAIKOW8KY. 

No.  88.    Sjranphonie  pathetique  :  3d  Movement. 
''Ob.  Allegro  tnolto  vivace. 


TSCHAIKOWSKY. 


259 


No.  89.    Symphonic  pathetique  :  Finale. 

A  dagio  lamentoso . 
^^/^aSL.   \ttPressivo.) 


26o 


DVORAK. 

( Page  147 ) 


No.  90.    Symphony  No.  5  in  E  miner :  "  From  the  New  World."  —  First  Movement. 


.  90.    Syn 
,C1.  in  A. 


DVORAK. 


a6i 


No.  gi.     Sym.  in  E  minor :  First  Movement. 
/Allegro  molto, 
Fl. 


molto  cresc, 


a62 

No.  9a.    Sym.  in  E  minor :  xst  Movement. 
A  llegro  molt». 
?1.  Piccolo. 


DVORAK. 


No.  93.    Sym.  in  E  minor:  ad  Movement, 
Large. 
''Cor.  inglese 


f 


^ 

VI.      ^ 


I 


s^ 


3= 


Viola 


Vcl. 


/^" 


/^" 


W^ 


pf 


Cb. 


^^=^ 


^?=i=^ 


:z^ 


^i=^ 


^=3 


:^  1=*- 


z:^ 


^^Cor.  inglese 


$ 


-•'— =r 


VI. 


$ 


molto  cresc. 


f 


dint. 


Vcl. 


^ 


^ 


*         J 


Cb.  /^ 


/ 


dim. 


^ 


^ 


3>    >^ 


<ft'ii«.  : 


No.  94.    Sym.  in  E  minor:  4th  Movement. 
VFl.  Allegro  con/uoco. 


DVORAK. 


No.  95.    Sym,  in  £  minor:  4th  Movement. 
A  Uegro  confiioco. 


moUo  cresc. 


DVORAK. 


265 


No.  96.    Sym.  in  E  minor  :  4th  Movement. 
Allegro  con/ucco. 

f^ P-^ — C* !*!*!■# 


Cor.  II.  in  B. 


I 


Cor.III.  IV.  InE. 


P 


Tym. 


^^S 


:CS= 


tt?= 


dim. 


dim. 


^^   B,>    /  1  ^ 


-<^r — B? 


^ge 


".  1      -: 


/»/ 


--^^ 


266 


Ob. 


fe* 


fc^ 


^^^ 


=fa:±z-- 


CI.  in  A. 


f 


^^^ 


=?c=r: 


Fag.  I. 


/> 


-n 


i 


JE?: 


e 


Fag.  n. 


iS 


Cor.  I.  in  B. 


I 


i»     T-: f-f^ 


H«=i=iH*-*-i-H*- 


:*=-- 


ditH. 


Cor.  U.inB. 


!■ 


Cor.  m.  IT.  inB. 


P 


-•-       ^ 


Tym. 


// 


Viola. 


sSii 


^ 


Vcl. 


^=t= 


_:^ 


.J^- 


Cb. 


RICHARD    STRAUSS. 

No.  97.    Zarathustra :  (,.das  Grablied.")  (Page  106) 

I.  Oboe.  Ruhigbewegt. 
'(  ausdrucksvoll ) 


267 


3  Fag.  w^     ^  herrtortreteud) 

Contraldg. 


"5=r 


I.   ll.{g€stofift) 


'W^ 


4  Horner  (F) 
III      - 


Vf  .{gestopft) 


Viol.  I. 


Contrab .    /  (  hervortrttend  ) 


-»=^, 


>/» 


368 


RICHARD  STRAUSS. 


,1.  Oboe 


Basscl.  (B) 


-«*  a-  s^  jf. 


8«^  i^  ff^ 


::^=: 


-jsy- 


-*=>- 


=; 


3f«L  tl«-   V 


gA     ^-ji*-  jj. 


^E 


:«*- 


rtnt 


3  Fag. 


— -gg* 

Contrafag. 


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INDEX 


Adam,  129,  (59). 
Adam  de  la  Hale,  3. 
(Aldrich,  R.),  107,  (no). 
Allen,  N.  H.,  173. 
Ambrosius,  2. 
Archer,  172. 
Arensky,  154. 
Atherton,  172. 
Auber,  62. 
Aulin,  151. 

Bach,  29. 

Bach,  Em.,  33. 

BalakireflF,  154. 

Balfe,  157. 

Bardi,  6. 

Bargiel,  79. 

Barnby,  158. 

Beach,  169. 

Beck,  168. 

BEETHOVEN,  53,   (Music, 

20S). 
Bellinger,  171. 
Bellini,  59. 
Bennett,  157,  (77). 
Benoit,  136. 
Bergmann,  170. 
BERLIOZ,  89,  (Music,  224). 
Berton,  59. 
Bird,  A.,  168. 
Bizet,  133. 
Blech,  123. 
Blodgett,  173. 
Boccherini,  41. 
Boetius,  2. 
Boieldieu,  61. 
Boise,  173. 
Boito,  142. 
Bonvin,  162,  169. 
Borodin,  154. 


Brahms,  82. 

Bridge,  158. 

Bristow,  163. 
(Browning),  187. 

Bruch,  86. 

Bruckner,  104. 

Bruneau,  137. 

Buck,  165. 

Bullard,  172. 

Buonamici,  143. 

Buononcini,  32. 

Buxtehude,  25. 

Byrd,  4. 
(Byron),  71. 

Caccini,  7. 
Cambert,  20. 
Campra,  35. 
Cannabich,  43,  44. 
Carissimi,  19. 
Catel,  59. 
Cavalieri,  7. 
Cavalli,  19. 
Cesti,  19. 

Chabrier,  133,  (129). 
Chadwick,  166. 
Chaminade,  136. 
Charpentier,  137. 
Chausson,  137. 
Cherubini,  59. 
Chopin,  59,  (78,  160). 
Cimarosa,  41. 
Clari,  21. 

Claude  le  Jeune,  4. 
Coleridge-Taylor,  160. 
Colonne,  139. 
Converse,  C.  C,  164. 
Converse,  F.,  170. 
Coombs,  173. 
C>)relli,  21. 

277 


(Comeille),  20. 
Cornelius,  104. 
Corsi,  7. 
Couperin,  25. 
Cowen,  159. 
Cui,  Cesar,  154. 
Cutter,  173. 
Czibulka,  146. 

d'Alayrac,  58. 

d'Albert,  124. 

dair  Abaco,  43. 

Damrosch,  F.,  171,  173. 

Damrosch,  L.,  164. 

Damrosch,  W.,  169. 
(Dannreuther),  156. 

Dargomizski,  153. 

David,  F^licien,  126. 

Debussy,  137. 

de  Koven,  169. 

Delibes,  129. 

Destouches,  35. 
(Dickinson),  38,  78,  92. 

d'lndy,  128. 

Dittersdorf,  42. 

Donizetti,  59. 

Doppler,  A.,  146. 

Doppler,  K.,  146. 

Draeseke,  105. 

Dubois,  135. 

Dufay,  3. 

Duni,  37. 

Dunstable,  4. 

Durante,  32. 

DVOrAK,  147,  (Music,  260). 

Eddy,  172. 
Elgar,  160. 
(Elson),  162. 
Emery,  164. 


278 


INDEX 


Enna,  151. 
Erkel,  146. 

Farwell,  162. 

Faur^,  137. 
(Ferris),  141. 

Field,  59. 

Fischer,  Franz,  107. 

Flotow,  124. 

Foerster,  168. 

Foote,  165. 

Franck,  C^sar,  127. 

Franco  de  Cologne,  2. 
(Francoeur),  44. 

Franz,  78. 
(Frederick  the  Great),  34. 

Frescobaldi,  5,  (25). 

Froberger,  25. 

Fuchs,  Anton,  138. 

Gabrieli,  A.,  5. 

Gabrieli,  G.,  5. 

Gade,  150,  (77). 

Galilei,  7. 

Gericke,  171. 

Gevaert,  136,  (51,  56). 

Gibbons,  7. 

Gilchrist,  168. 
(Gilman,  L.),  167. 

Gilmore,  172. 

Glazounoff,  154. 

Gleason,  168. 

Glinka,  153. 

Gluck,  38. 

Godard,  127. 
(Goethe),  187. 

Goetschins,  173. 

Goldmark,  85,  (145). 

Goldmark,  R.,  170. 

Gomez,  142. 

Goodrich,  A.  J.,  173. 

Goodrich,  J.  W.,  172. 

Gossec,  43. 

Gottschalk,  163. 

Goudimel,  4. 

Gounod,  130. 

Gow,  173. 


Graun,  34. 
Gregories,  The,  2. 
Gretry,  40,  (44). 
Grieg,  150. 
(Grove),  75. 
Guido  d'Arezzo,  2. 
Guilmant,  136. 

Habeneck,  138. 

Hadley,  170. 

Halevy,  62. 

Hall,  172. 

Hallstrom,  149. 

Handel,  30. 

Hanscom,  173. 

Hasse,  34. 

HAYDN,  47,  (Music,  197). 
(Hegel),  186. 
(Henderson),  155,  156,  160. 

Henry,  166. 

Henschel,  171. 

Herbert,  170. 

Herold,  62. 

Hiller,  F.,  77. 

Hiller,  J.  A.,  42. 
(Hipkins),  10. 

Holmbs,  136. 
(Howard,  A.  A.),  11. 

Howland,  166. 

Hucbald,  2. 
(Hughes),  162,  164. 

Humperdinck,  123. 

Huss,  170. 

Innes,  172. 
Isaak,  4. 
Isadore,  2. 
Isouard,  58. 

Jadassohn,  80. 
Jensen,  79. 

Johannes  de  Muris,  2. 
Johns,  172. 
Jomelli,  41,  42. 
Jonciferes,  136. 
Jordan,  173. 
Josquin  des  Prfes,  3. 


Keiser,  z^. 

Kelley,  168. 

Kerf,  25. 

Kienzl,  123. 

Kistler,  123. 
(Klein,  Herman),  iii. 
(Krehbiel),  148. 

Kreutzer,  73,  (59). 

Kuhnau,  25. 

Lachner,  80. 

Lalo,  127. 

Lamoureux,  139, 

Lang,  B.  J.,  171. 

Lang,  M.  R.,  172, 
(Langhans),  19,  71. 

Lassen,  105. 

Lasso,  4. 

Lavoix,  136,  (20,  43,  60). 

Legrenzi,  21. 

Lehar,  124. 
(Leibnitz),  187. 

Leo,  32. 

Leoncavallo,  143. 

Lesueur,  61. 

Levi,  106,  107,  134,  147. 

Leviris,  162,  1&9. 

Lindblad,  149. 

Listemann,  171. 

Liszt,  92,  (103,  104,  145). 
(Lobe),  10 1. 

Locke,  172. 

LoeflBer,  170,  (9). 

Logroscino,  32. 
(Lorenzo  the  Great),  6. 

Lortzing,  124. 

Lotti,  32. 

(Louis  XIV  of  France),  20. 
(Ludwig  n  of  Bavaria),  loi. 

Lulli,  19. 

Lund,  171. 

Macdougall,  173. 
MacDowell,  166. 
Macfarren,  157. 
Mackenzie,  158. 
Mahler,  123. 


INDEX 


279 


Maillart,  129. 

Marschner,  73. 

Marston,  173. 

Mascagni,  143. 
(Mason,  D.  G.),  150. 

Mason,  L.,  163. 

Mason,  W.,  163. 

Massenet,  134. 

Mattheson,  33. 
(Matthews,W.S.B.),  173,  (82). 

McWhood,  173. 
(Medici),  6. 

Mehul,  60. 

MENDELSSOHN,  75, 
(Music,  232). 

Merbecke,  4. 

Merulo,  5. 

Meyerbeer,  64,  (9). 
(Moli^re),  20. 

Mollenhauer,  171, 

Monsigny,  37. 
(Montegut),  186. 

MONTEVERDE,  16, 
(Music,  191). 

Mosonyi,  146. 

Morley,  4. 

Moskowski,  80. 

Mouret,  36. 

MOZART,  50,  (Music,  203). 

Muck,  107,  171. 

Mussorgski,  154. 

(Napoleon),  63. 

Naumann,  35. 

Neidlinger,  172. 

Nevin,  172. 

Nicod€,  105. 

Nicolai,  124. 
(Nietzsche),  loi. 

Nikisch,  171. 
(Nordau),  loi. 

Normann,  149. 

Norris,  173. 

Notker,  2. 

Ockeghem,  3, 
Onslow,  126. 


Pachelbel,  25. 

Paesiello,  41. 

Paine,  164. 

Paladhile,  136. 

Palestrina,  4. 

Parker,  167. 

Parry,  159,  (4,  38,  145). 

Parsons,  173. 

Pasdeloup,  139. 

Paur,  171. 

Pergolesi,  32. 

Peri,  7. 

Perrin,  23. 

Philidor,  37. 

Piccini,  40. 

Ponchielli,  142. 

Porpora,  32. 
(Praetorius),  12. 

Pratt,  173. 
(Prout),  71,  74,  84. 

Puccini,  143. 

Purcell,  24,  (30). 
(Pythagoras),  10. 

(Racine),  20. 

RaflF,  81. 

Rameau,  36. 

Reber,  126. 

Reger,  123. 

Reincken,  25. 

Reinecke,  79. 

Reyer,  127,  (133). 

Rheinberger,  86,  (loi). 
(Richter,  Jean  Paul),  71. 
(Riemann),   10,   34,   80,    109, 
i53»  164. 

Rietz,  77. 

Rimski-KorsakofiF,  154. 

Ritter,  A.,  105,  (107). 
(Ritter,  Dr.),  162. 

Rogers,  172. 
(Rosch),  no,  113,  115. 

Rossini,  64. 

Rousseau,  37. 

Rubinstein,  155,  (81). 

Riibner,  173. 


Sacchini,  40. 
SAINT-SAENS,  131,  (Music, 

247)- 
Salieri,  40. 
Sammartini,  42,  43. 
(Savanarola),  6. 
Sax,  12,  63. 
SCARLATTI,    22,    (Music, 

194). 
Scarlatti,  D.,  25. 
Scharwenka,  X.,  170. 
Scheel,  171. 
Scheldt,  25. 
(Schiller),  187. 
Schillings,  123. 
Schoenefeld,  168. 
(Schopenhauer),  186. 
Schubert,  74. 
Schuch,  118. 
Schumann,  78. 
Schumann,  Georg,  123. 
Schiitz,  17. 
Seidl,  171. 
Serow,  153. 
Sgambati,  143. 
Shelley,  172. 
Sherwood,  164. 
Sibelius,  151. 
Sinding,  151. 
Smetana,  147. 
Smith,  G.,  172. 
Smith,  W.  G.,  173. 
Sodermann,  149. 
Sousa,  172. 
Spalding,  173. 
(Spencer),  186. 
Spohr,  70. 
Spontini,  63. 
Stamitz,  42,  44. 
Stanford,  160,  (159). 
SteflFani,  21. 
Stennhammer,  151. 
Story,  173. 
Strauss,  J.,  124. 
STRAUSS,  RICHARD,  106, 

(Music,  267). 
Striggio,  7. 


28o 


INDEX 


Strong,  172. 
Stubbs,  172. 
Suk,  147. 
Sxillivan,  158. 
Supp^,  124. 
Svendsen,  150, 
Sylvester,  2. 

Tallys,  4. 

Telemann,  33. 

Theile,  33. 

Thomas,  Ambrose,  129. 

Thomas,  A.  Goring,  159. 

Thomas,  Theodore,  170,  171, 

(109). 
Thuille,  123. 


Tomlins,  171,  173. 
Torelli,  21. 

TSCHAIKOWSKY,  155, 
(Music,  254). 

van  der  Stucken,  169. 
van  Malder,  44. 
Verdi,  140,  (59). 
Viadana,  7. 
Vidal,  136, 
Vivaldi,  21. 
Volkmann,  79 
von  Billow,  103,  106,  107. 

WAGNER,  93,  (72,  92), 

(Music,  238). 
Walther,  Benno,  106. 


Wanhal,  44. 
Warren,  R.  H.,  172. 
Warren,  S.,  172. 
WEBER,  71,  (Music,  215). 
Weingartner,  105. 
White,  166. 
Whiting,  172. 
Whitney,  172. 
Widor,  136. 
Willaert,  3. 
(Willeby),  159,  160. 
Wolf,  123. 
Wolf-Ferrari,  144. 

Zeck,  169. 
Zerrahn,  171. 


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Eighth  Edition,     izmo,  cloth,  $1.2^ 

A  series  of  lively  letters  from  an  American  lady,  written  while  a  student 
of  music  in  various  cities  of  Germany. 

How    to    Sing    (Meine  Gesangskunst) 

By    LILLI    LEHMANN 

Translated  from  the  German  by  Richard  Aldrich 

Illustrated,  i2mo,  cloth,  $1.^0  net  {by  mail,  $/.6j) 

PUBLISHED    BY 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

SIXTY-FOUR   AND    SIXTY-SIX    FIFTH    AVENUE 

NEW   YORK 


9^33 


A     000  679  064 


